Its important that the writer address all the points listed below and pay close attention to details when responding to the questions. He need to read and understand the instructions listed hear below and use the listed articles to complete the paper as require.
Once again, you will utilize articles listed in the Resources section to explore the different topics for your Research Paper. Below, you will find a series of questions pertaining to each article. You do not have to answer the questions directly, but they are included to guide you in discovering the type of information that you need to complete the research paper.
With the widespread adoption of the Internet, consumers have found it easy and convenient to obtain information and to share their concerns, ask questions, and obtain answers from third party sources. An example of this is the consumer forums at edmunds.com, established for individuals interested in purchasing a car. Also, online forums and blogs that incorporate customer feedback have developed, leading to increased information for the consumer.
For this section, read “The Continuing Power of Mass Advertising” and “Word of Mouth on the Web: The Impact of Web 2.0 on Consumer Purchase Decisions.” After reading each article, consider the following questions:
• Is mass advertising dead in the era of personalized marketing?
• What should companies do to manage this proliferating word of mouth information generated on the Web and incorporate it in their strategies?
• Is the balance of power shifting from companies to the customer?
• What are the commercial implications for companies’ promotional decisions?
Using the information you have read and any other outside resources that you have found, prepare a summary (2 pages) of how these topics relate to the overall subject you are addressing in your paper. Remember to refer back to the main task of this paper, which is to describe how you believe the usage of the individual marketing mix variables is likely to change in the future and what companies must do to adapt their marketing approaches in order to achieve competitive advantage. In particular, focus on the following aspect:
The commercial implications of interpersonal communications between and among consumers on the Internet and how this affects the development of a viable business model and the product development process.
Resources:
Articles
• Nunes, P., & Merrihue, J. (2007). The continuing power of mass advertising. MIT Sloan Management Review, 48(2), 63–71. Retrieved from Business Source Premier database.
With an increased focus on more personal marketing, the costs to businesses have risen. The authors of this article identify four different strategies that companies can use to effectively reach broad groups at a relatively inexpensive cost and then give specific examples from current businesses to illustrate the strategies.
Riegner, C. (2007). Word of mouth on the Web: The impact of Web 2.0 on consumer purchase decisions. Journal of Advertising Research, 47(4), 436–447. Retrieved from Business Source Premier database.
By conducting a study of over 4,000 Internet users, the author of this article sought to determine the effects of consumers communicating with one another purchasing decisions.
Articles
• Havlena, W., Cardarelli, R., & Montigny, M. (2007). Quantifying the isolated and synergistic effects of exposure frequency for TV, print and Internet advertising. Journal of Advertising Research, 47(3), 215–221. doi:10.2501/S0021849907070262
Using a case study approach, the authors seek to determine which medium (TV, print or Internet) or combination of mediums has the greatest effect on consumers and their decision to purchase a product.
• Keller, E. (2007). Unleashing the power of word of mouth: Creating brand advocacy to drive growth. Journal of Advertising Research, 47(4), 448–452. doi:10.2501/S0021849907070468
In this article, the author identifies the need for quantifiable data to help marketers understand how to best use the power of word of mouth to help establish brands.
Usunier, J., & Cestre, G. (2007). Product ethnicity: Revisiting the match between products and countries. Journal of International Marketing, 15(3), 32–72. doi:10.1509/jimk.15.3.32
In this study, the authors explore the concept of product ethnicity, or stereotypes that consumers hold about the innovative ability and reputation of different countries in manufacturing products. They next discuss a model to measure the effects of product ethnicity.
SAMPLE ANSWER
Mass Marketing Versus Personalized Marketing
The articles “The Continuing Power Of Mass Advertising” by Paul Nunes and Jeffrey Merrihue (2007) and “Word Of Mouth” by Cater Reigner (2007) provide a comparative analysis of personal and mass marketing through online and traditional channels. Although the researches of the authors were independent, their focus gives a sufficient outlook of the current literature, which evaluates the effectiveness of traditional and new marketing strategies that currently dominate the markets.
One of the common questions asked in the consumer environment is the trend of mass advertising. Is mass advertising dead in the era of personalized marketing? The reports of both authors tend to move to one line of thought when assessing the prevalence of mass marketing and the personalized one. Both authors acknowledge the movement and the prevalence of personalized marketing. The use of technology has facilitated the use of personalized market to a high degree in a very short period. Havlena, Cardarelli and Montigny (2007) note that the use of social media, emails, and phone have allowed individuals to interact with consumers one-on-one. A study carried by Nunes and Merrihue (2007) reveals that the Y generations are the most buyers in the market and are the ones that are “digital” minded. It means that the focus of marketing shifts to them. Keller (2007) posits that the Y generation argues that use of web-based marketing is easy and fast as you can talk to the sellers unlike mass advertisement on TVs and newspapers.
On the other hand, Nunes and Merrihuel argue that it is still early for mass marketing to die. The authors say that it will take considerable number of years for mass marketing to disappear. In their research, they revealed that the new avenues have not interrupted the traditional methods for getting the advertisements. The study revealed that common avenues of advertisement are still 97%; this includes television, radio, print, and billboards. Hence, the fact that those traditional venues still dominate the market assures the continuity of mass marketing. Additionally, Nunes and Merrihuel argue that a small percentage of markers are ready to purchase tools for web-based marketing, which seems to be expensive and is among the strategies that companies can use to shift from traditional to personalized marketing. They have to create webpage for the products, programmed machines that responds to individual requirements, and addition of staff to respond to each individual. Moore and Pareek (2009) add that most of the consumers are not acquainted with some of the technologies, hence, they have to be taught through campaigns.
Both authors agreed that web-based marketing has got high prevalence as a marketing strategy. The major reason for the high prevalence is the interpersonal communication between the consumers and the marketers. One-on-one communication assures customers on the need and benefit of the products (Keller, 2007). It gives the marketer an opportunity to use his/ her skills to convince the buyers on the importance and the advantages of the products. Ryan and Jones (2009) describe interpersonal communication as a tool that assures customers of the products. According to Keller (2007), products will not sell unless the customers have the information about them. Therefore, customers only decide after getting the information through promotion that intensifies when there is interpersonal communication. As such, it is the customers that have the powers to lift a company after getting the knowledge about its products.
References
Havlena, W., Cardarelli, R., & Montigny, M. (2007). Quantifying the isolated and synergistic effects of exposure frequency for TV, print and Internet advertising. Journal of Advertising Research, 47(3), 215–221.
Keller, E. (2007). Unleashing the power of word of mouth: Creating brand advocacy to drive growth. Journal of Advertising Research, 47(4), 448–452.
Moore, K., & Pareek, N. (2009). Marketing : The Basics. London: Routledge
Nunes, P., & Merrihue, J. (2007). The continuing power of mass advertising. MIT Sloan Management Review, 48(2), 63–71
Riegner, C. (2007). Word of mouth on the Web: The impact of Web 2.0 on consumer purchase decisions. Journal of Advertising Research, 47(4), 436–447.
Ryan, D., & Jones, C. (2009). Understanding Digital Marketing : Marketing Strategies for Engaging the Digital Generation. London: Kogan Page
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What must be done to intervene and ensure that history does not repeat itself for future populations? This week, you examine the impact of the historical roots of social disparities on health of populations in Africa and Latin America. As you go through this week’s Learning Resources, think about what we can learn from history. This week, you consider developing a policy in a country you selected and think about various issues in practicing population health.
Objectives
Students will:
• Analyze the impact of determinants on health outcomes for countries
• Analyze public issues in health literacy and cultural awareness
• Identify the relationship between health inequality and life expectancy in selected countries
• Identify efforts to reduce health inequities
• Analyze policy development and country support
For your Final Project, share some of your ideas on how you can use the knowledge and insights gained in this course to promote positive social change in your community and the world.
To prepare for the Final Project, review all the week’s Learning Resources and consider possible issues you might encounter when implementing a policy.
Final Project (7–10 pages):
In developing a policy in the country you selected, consider the following:
• Explain the rationale for selecting the country.
• Describe the social determinants of health in the country that you would need to address. Explain why you need to address these determinants.
• Explain the possible public issues you might encounter in health literacy and cultural awareness in this country.
• Describe the relationship between health inequality/inequities and life expectancy for the population in your selected country.
• Describe two current efforts in this country (you selected) to reduce health inequities.
• Explain how you might develop a health policy so that it gets the support of the country you selected. Note: Take into account the culture of the country.
Articles:
1. Wilkinson, R., & Pickett, K. (2010). The spirit level: Why greater equality makes societies stronger. New York, NY: Bloomsbury Press.
Chapter 15, “Equality and Sustainability” (pp. 217–234)
2. Alles, M., Eussen, S., Ake-Tano, O., Diouf, S., Tanya, A., Lakati, A., . . . Mauras, C. (2013). Situational analysis and expert evaluation of the nutrition and health status of infants and young children in five countries in sub-Saharan Africa. Food and Nutrition Bulletin, 34(3), 287–298.
3. Baum, F. (2008). The Commission on the Social Determinants of Health: Reinventing health promotion for the twenty-first century? Critical Public Health, 18(4), 457–466.
4. Dankwa-Mullan, I., Rhee, K. B., Williams, K., Sanchez, I., Sy, F. S., Stinson, N., & Ruffin, J. (2010). The science of eliminating health disparities: Summary and analysis of the NIH summit recommendations. American Journal of Public Health, 100(Suppl. 1), S12–S18.
5. Jones, C. M. (2010). The moral problem of health disparities. American Journal of Public Health, 100(Suppl. 1), S47–S51.
6. Koh, H. K., & Nowinski, J. M. (2010). Health equity and public health leadership. American Journal of Public Health, 100(Suppl. 1), S9–S11.
7. Kruk, M. E., Porignon, D., Rockers, P. C., & Van Lerberghe, W. V. (2010). The contribution of primary care to health and health systems in low- and middle-income countries: A critical review of major primary care initiatives. Social Science & Medicine, 70(6), 904–911.
8. Venkatapuram, S. (2010). Global justice and the social determinants of health. Ethics & International Affairs, 24(2), 119–130.
11. Rudan, I., O’Brien, K. L., Nair, H., Liu, L., Theodoratou, E., Qazi, S., . . . Campbell, H. (2013). Epidemiology and etiology of childhood pneumonia in 2010: Estimates of incidence, severe morbidity, mortality, underlying risk factors and causative pathogens for 192 countries. Journal of Global Health, 3(1).
Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3700032/pdf/jogh-03-010401.pdf
Please apply the Application Assignment Rubric when writing the Paper.
I. Paper should demonstrate an excellent understanding of all of the concepts and key points presented in the texts.
II. Paper provides significant detail including multiple relevant examples, evidence from the readings and other sources, and discerning ideas.
III. Paper should be well organized, uses scholarly tone, follows APA style, uses original writing and proper paraphrasing, contains very few or no writing and/or spelling errors, and is fully consistent with doctoral level writing style.
IV. Paper should be mostly consistent with doctoral level writing style.
SAMPLE ANSWER
Introduction
The health status of every population in any country is a crucial towards the development of this country. A healthy population will be able to work together and constitute in development of the country while an unhealthy population will drag behind in development as more time is taken to improve this status. The health status, therefore, remains as a tough challenge in most of the developing countries most especially African countries and the Latin America (Frey,& Temple, 2009). Importantly, these countries are mostly faced with intellectual disabilities (ID) and thus, call for the nee of establishing national initiatives to handle this exclusive health need of its population. As such, this paper will focus on the health status of Guatemala country as one of the Latin American country, discuss the social factors affecting its health status and elaborate on public concerns that might be encountered when addressing the health literacy and cultural awareness. Moreover, the paper will look into the relationship between the life expectancy and health inequities of this country as well as the efforts made by this country to improve its health status.
Guatemala is the biggest and most populated country amongst the Central American countries. The population of this country is rapidly growing and young that is mainly a rural based population. However, it has been noted as a country with the poorest social outcomes compared to other Latin American countries as most of its children below five years suffer from chronic starvation and about 290 women pass away from the pregnancy difficulties (Centre for Economic and Social Rights [CESR], 2014). In addition, it has the lowest human progress that is based in terms of health, life expectancy and education outcomes as compared to the other countries.
As such, the health status of this country calls for serious attention to the whole globe and the associated professionals (CESR, 2014).In response to this, ICEFI
(InstitutoCentroamericano de EstudiosFiscales)That is a research body was formed. Together with Guatemalan specialists were mandated to research on the various ways to improve the political economy and health state of this country. After the research was conducted, a report was laid down that resolved that failure of economic progress and failure to realize the political rights of the Guatemalans was due to lack of political will by the ruling government to contribute more in preserving those rights (CESR, 2014).
Congruently, most of the Guatemalans are living in poverty especially, those in rural areas. Despite putting more effort in improving the health situations in Guatemala, it still remains to be amongst the countries that are having higher maternal mortality rate in Central America (CESR, 2014). The leading cause of this is the poor allocation of resources to the maternal health by the state making it hard to monitor and implement the right heath measures in the country.
The advancement of poor health situation in Guatemala has been accelerated by various factors that directly or indirectly favor these poor health status. Apparently, the major social determinants of health status in Guatemala is the political and socioeconomic factors (Marini, 2010). These factors comprises of the wide set of cultural, functional and structural features of social system that highly influence the people’s health on a daily basis. Further, the daily happenings on an individual also affect their health status as it is through this that determines the types of diseases that one contract. Additionally, society work plays a vital role in fighting or boosting the health status of any country and, therefore, it’s the role of the society set up organizations that aid in health promotion, treatment of diseases and disease prevention. However, the socioeconomic state of Guatemala is poorly run in that most of the people are poor especially those living in rural areas and, therefore, it is hard to set-up organizationsthat creates awareness to the members of the society.
Moreover, the political context of any country can either worsen the health status or make it better. This solely depends on the ruling governance, public policies, societal values and microeconomic policies (World Health Organization [WHO], 2012). It is the governmental role to make sure that there are sufficient resources in all health institutions. As such, poor governance in Guatemala aids in the deteriorating poor health services where there is under-funding of health institutions leading to poor service provision (WHO, 2012).
Correspondingly, the structure of the society influence the health status of every country that cuts across the making of the society as well as its cultural and social believes. Through this societal structure that determines what the society takes as good for them and what it abandons. Moreso, the social position of every individual determines how they get the access of the health services. This incorporates the education level and the income level of every individual is what regulates how each gets access of the health services. In Guatemala, the largest percentage of the sick people are poor and they are not in a position of accessing better health services as they are low-income earners(WHO, 2012).
Similarly, gender variation amongst the society plays a critical role in health due to its crucial effects on the development of hierarchies in the allocation of resources and division of labor (Ishida, 2009). Most of the jobs are allocated depending on the sex, and different values allocated to those roles for them to access and have control over crucial social protection possessions including; employment, education, and health services. Evidently, in Guatemala death rate is different across the gender since more women tend to die than men (Ishida, 2012). This trend is experienced as more deaths are caused by pregnancy complications.
To control all these problems, there rises need to educate the public on the health matters and create awareness to the community on the matters concerning their health. This is one of the ways that can be used to overcome all these un-favoring health determinants. As such, nurses are mandated to go out in the field, interact with the public, educate them and provide health care to them. However, despite this effort by every government, nurses and other professionals are faced with various difficulties as they carry out their awareness programs due to serving varied population of patients (Wittner, 2012). Amongst the many challenges facing nurses are based on the linguistic, language and literacy levels among the patients and members of the public. Although in the nurses are taught on how to handle all the difficulties associated with patients, this remains a difficult task to handle a diversified population of patients (Singleton, 2009).
Cultural competence being the skills of providers and organizations being in a position of distributing effective health care services without inconveniencing any patient is yet affected by this diversified population of the patients (Wittner, 2012). Due language barriers and low level of health literacy amongst the patients and members of the public, it becomes hard for the nurses to provide culturally competent services. Also, due to low literacy amongst the patients, it becomes hard for them to read any instructions given by physicians and during public awareness (Wittner, 2012).
Moreso, the cultural beliefs of every society plays a serious role in provision of the culturally competent services and, therefore, it is very important for the ones involved in providing these services to understand the culture of the public they are serving. In Guatemala, all these factors limits the interaction time between the service offers and the patients thus risking the lives of the patients suffering from chronic diseases who need more time. Equally, lack of cultural competence leads to the provision of poor health services and lack of satisfaction of the offered services due to low quality of patient to doctor interaction.
Finally, creation of awareness towards the public is in Guatemala is also challenged by the health care practices and beliefs in that some ethnic groups in the country does not believe in the science-oriented things (Baum, 2008). Therefore, this poses a great challenge to the people implementing the awareness programs to convince these people that workability of their mission. This becomes a hard task when dealing with the mentally challenged patients who believe that mental illness is brought by possession of evil spirits and, therefore means that the personnel dealing with such a person must fully understand the belief of every patient and be in a position of interfering with their beliefs in the correct way as they treat them.
It’s vividly clear that in the hardship associated in accessing the health services in Guatemala is led by unequal distribution of resources amongst its citizens. As such, it is simple for some people to settle hospital bills and access health services even from private hospitals whereas it is hard for others to access public hospitals (WHO, 2012). As a result, life inequity and social exclusion come up which tends to hinder the vast majority of the people from accessing better health services (Wright, 2009). Importantly, life inequities remain as the main hindrance in the provision better and improved health conditions in Guatemala. Significantly, life inequality is distributed on the basis of the socioeconomic levels of lives where the mortality rate of poor people is double than that of well-being people (Wright, 2009).
The life expectancy amongst the Guatemalans is also based on the life inequity, where the percentage of successful births is high for the rich people unlike for the poor ones (Jones, 2010). Moreover, the dissemination education amongst varies on the basis of the income distribution implying that children from well-being families gets quality education that improves their level of literacy. Besides, the increasing elderly population in Guatemala does not mean that they are living a comfortable life. The old population combined with the declining fertility rate in Guatemala has led to the deterioration of the economic, health and social life of the Guatemalans more is incurred when taking care of this old population (Jones, 2010). Consequentially, it is the role of the state government to minimize the gap between the living standards of the Guatemalans that will in turn boost their health, social and economic life.
Despite all these health challenges affecting the Guatemalan, its government has put several projects in an attempt of improving the health condition of its citizens. After the passing of the peace contracts in 1996, the new constitution of the Guatemalan stated that it an elementary right for every citizen to have access of a health care (Pena, 2013). Though it has remained a hard task for the government to implement this right, this government has tried to improve the health condition of its health institutions (Johnson, 2013). It has achieved this by improving its Ministry of Public Health and by involving other non-governmental organizations in the provision of better health services to its citizens. Moreover, the government setup a program (Expansion of Coverage program) that aims at improving the access of nutrition and health services to the poor people residing in the rural areas (World Bank Group [WBG], 2014). The program is implemented through the collaboration of government and various NGO’s where they are aiming at ensuring that they overcome the dominating life inequity amongst the poor people.
Conclusion
In general, therefore, the health state of any country solely depends on the ruling government that is held responsible for the provision of better health services and ensuring that they are easily accessible to every citizen. Also, the government should increase the number of professional doctors in the public hospitals to reduce the number of un-attended patients and to be able to handle the large population of the country. Similarly, for the health services and conditions of Guatemala to improve, the issue of life inequity must be handled and its effects controlled so as to improve its life expectancy. Consistently, cultural competence in the country as well as literacy and language barrier need to be addressed. In turn, this will ease the doctor’s and all involved party work as well as make public awareness effective thus, making the functionality of health institutions efficient.
References
Baum, F.,(2008). The Commission on the Social Determinants of Health: Reinventing health promotion for the twenty-first century? Critical Public Health, 18(4),
Centre for Economic and Social Rights,(2014). Center for Economic and Social Rights: Guatemala [Web at]
Ishida, K.S., (2012). International Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health: Ethnic Inequality in Guatemalan Women’s Use of Modern Reproductive Health Care. In-Print.
Jones, C. M.,(2010). The moral problem of health disparities. American Journal of Public Health, 100(Suppl. 1), S47–S51.
Johnson, C.D.,(2013). Social capital: theory, measurement and outcomes. Nova Science Publisher’s, Inc.: Hauppauge, New York.
Literacy” OJIN: The Online Journal of Issues in Nursing. Vol. 14, No. 3, Manuscript 4.
Marini, A.,(2012). Three essays on economic determinants of child malnutrition
Pena, C. L.,(2013). Guatemala – Improving Access to Health Care Services through the Expansion of Coverage Program (PEC): The Case of Guatemala. Universal Health Coverage (UNICO) Washington, DC. Studies series; no. 19.
The World Bank Group, (2014). Improving Access to The Health Care Services through the Expansion of Coverage Program: The Case of Guatemala [Web at] <https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/13283 > Retrieved 20th, October 2014
Singleton, K.,& Krause, E.,(2009). “Understanding Cultural and Linguistic Barriers to Health
Wittner, J.G.,& Root, J.,(2012). Gendered Worlds. Oxford University Press, USA: New York.
Earlier in the course, the different population health outcomes of two culturally and economically similar neighbors (the U.S. and Canada) were considered. This week, the focus shifts to the eastern hemisphere and an examination of health inequalities between and within nations with large, diverse populations.
Both India and China had similar health outcomes at the end of WWII. Unlike India, China’s health improved tremendously over the next 30 years. When it did not have a focus on economic growth, China’s health achievements surpassed India. Since the economic reforms 30 years ago, health progress in China has not been growing as much. Today, India is booming and is home to some of the richest people in the world, but it is also home to more food insecurities than anywhere else in the world.
To prepare for this Assignment, review your Learning Resources this week. Consider how certain large populations within a single political entity can still display disparate health outcomes. Think about how areas such as Kerala can have remarkably different health outcomes than the countries they are in. What makes those areas different from the rest of the country?
The Assignment (3-4 pages):
Discussion questions:
• Describe two health outcomes for which India and China have had different experiences in the last half century.
• Explain the reasons for the disparities noted.
• Describe the experience for those outcomes in Kerala and suggest reasons for why they are similar or different from the rest of India.
• Expand on your insights utilizing the Learning Resources.
Articles:
Please apply the Application Assignment Rubric when writing the Paper.
I. Paper should demonstrate an excellent understanding of all of the concepts and key points presented in the texts.
II. Paper provides significant detail including multiple relevant examples, evidence from the readings and other sources, and discerning ideas.
III. Paper should be well organized, uses scholarly tone, follows APA style, uses original writing and proper paraphrasing, contains very few or no writing and/or spelling error
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The influence that customers have on business activity has increased in recent years. What HRM implications does this have for workers and managers?
The following conditions must met in the paper
1) I want a typical and a quality answer which should have about 1400 words.
2) The answer must raise appropriate critical questions.
3) The answer must include examples from experience or the web with references from
relevant examples from real companies.
4) Do include all your references, as per the Harvard Referencing System,
Appreciate each single moment you spend in writing my paper
Best regards
SAMPLE ANSWER
Human Resource Management (HRM) Implications
Human resource remains one of the most important assets in an organization. Having the right people contributes to the achievement of an entity’s objectives and goals. It is the duty of HRM to put in place appropriate strategies and execute their functions well to ensure that an organization achieves its objectives. In the current world, the influence of customers on business activities has increased, which requires HRM to change strategy to meet the customers’ needs and expectations. The author delineates on HRM implications on employees and managers due to increased customer influence on business activities.
Customers form an important part of any business stakeholders, as they are the consumers of products and services. Organizations must consider the needs and the interest of customers in making any decisions. Meeting customers’ needs may define or differentiate between a successful and a failed business venture (Francis & Keegan, 2006). Satisfied customers often return to purchase the products and services of the company and vice versa. Business dynamics has continued to change in the recent past as new technologies come into existence. These changes have significant consequences on HRM practices if a business wants to compete favorably (Graf, 2007). Nowadays, customers have gained power as they comment, provide their opinions and even criticize products and services that various entities provide. Social platforms such as facebook, twitter, blogs and internet have necessitated the increased customer power on business activities. Therefore, with such changes, business must align themselves in such a way that they can incorporate these views to offer products and services that the customers require.
One of the HRM implications of increased influence of customers on business activities on employees and managers is change of strategies of recruitment and selection of their workers (Graf, 2007). Selection is one of the most important initiatives and function of HRM which can have positive or negative impact on an entity. Attracting and retaining competent workers is very critical in this era. Employees must have better customer care skills for them to strategize their businesses. Appointing people with right expertise and capabilities is one of the strategies that will enable them win and meet the demand of the customers. An entity will be in a position to survive in this era if it has an effective team of employees and managers that are able to make decisive decisions that will have a positive impact on customers (Graf, 2007). Workers and managers will have to take time to understand the philosophies and aims of the entity to impact on customer satisfaction, production and build relationship with suppliers. Satisfying employees’ need thorough financial rewards as well as providing other incentives will as well help to improve the employees and managers performance and commitment making them to provide better services to customers hence creating positive working relationship.
In this era, HRM will as well be required to invest in training and development initiatives of their employees and managers. Training allows an individual to advance their levels of self-awareness, enhance talent, improves skills and knowledge and motivates employees (Ullah & Yasmin, 2013). Employees and managers will have to undergo training on technology advancement and their use in businesses. For instance, use of social media and internet has become a major channel where consumers engage companies. Employees must therefore understand how these platforms work so that they meet the expectations of the customers.
In such an environment, managers are required to create a conducive working condition for their employees. They should allow employees to take part in the decision making process. Employees have ideas and views that managers can buy to help them meet their achievements and objectives (Bowen, 1986). This feedback should be provided in various forums and through suggestion boxes in the organizations. Information sharing will enable the company to function effectively as employees may provide essential information on strategies. Flexibility on designs is also critical in ensuring that the entity compete effectively and meets the goals and objectives of the customers. Job design will include embracing of job rotation, job enrichment, increase of autonomy at work, and job enrichment design that broadens job definitions. Employees must take responsibility upon themselves to ensure that they meet the needs of the customers.
Management should empower employees to help aid in customer satisfaction. Employees also get an opportunity to exercise control over their jobs and make decisions by delegating power and authority. Graf (2007) revealed a number of benefits accruing from employee empowerment including, quick reaction to customer demands and issues, affectionate and excited customer dealings, more satisfied employees, and employees are able to pioneer ideas. In this era where customers have greater influence, therefore, through empowerment of employees, they will engage customers in professional way to address and render appropriate services. It is, therefore, very critical that this is taken with seriousness as it affects delivery of better services to the customers.
Customers, even though are outside an organization’s boundaries, remain relevant references and or extension on HRM, meaning that they cannot be left out in the equation. They influence the success or failure of an entity. For instance, if customers lack an opportunity to express their concerns about the products they purchase and services, they use may not be confident enough to trust such products and services. This means that the company may not manage to achieve their dreams. However, those that listen to what the customers say and engage them constructively increase their public image and increase their customer base since customer feel a sense of belonging and feel appreciated and part of the larger organization community. Therefore, these are the implications that managers and customers must consider in their strategy. Managers must be concerned more on the level of competition as well as on avenues to ensure that employees are well prepared to provide appropriate services to their customers.
It has also become essential for managers to increase their level of customer orientation about the company and employees and reduce role conflicts and ambiguity to create a benefit for the customers (Chiu & Luk, 2002). This complex era requires customers to access appropriate and sufficient information on the company services and products to remain knowledgeable and to avoid controversies or conflicts likely to affect the image of an entity. Customers should receive information from the company on various aspects to alleviate any misunderstanding. This means that managers and employees would be required to embrace codes of ethics and ensure that they render their services with highest professionalism.
Training employees is essential in ensuring that they become competent enough to address the ever changing and challenges arising from increased consumer influence. For example, Kodak resorted to a global learning management system in 2000 in delivering e learning to its employees across the world (Friedman, 2007). This opportunity enabled the employees to be equipped with relevant skills and knowledge to execute their duties diligently. The training as well enabled them to understand the impact of culture and globalization hence being in a position to offer their services well (Hofstede, 2001). With technology, customers come across the world and have different cultural values, which require companies HRM to factor and to consider them in their strategies. Another company that has taken an initiative of appreciating and aligning its strategies to remain competitive even with increased customer influence is Apple Inc. The company has managed to remain innovative and to produce products that meet consumer expectations by allowing customers to take part in their decision-making. Customers have been involved through opinions, comments and criticisms, on various social media platform contributing to the companies’ achievement of its goals over the recent years.
Entities should invest their resources in research and development. Through research, organizations stand a better chance of understanding the needs and interests of customers. They will therefore be in a better position to render quality services to them.
It is true that customer influence on businesses has increased to greater magnitude in the recent past. This scenario has had a number of HRM implications. Organizations must change their strategies to be able to produce products and offer services that meet the consumer needs. Consumers are essential in any company’s success strategy and, therefore, by adopting appropriate and tactical strategies, the companies have higher chances of succeeding. Empowering employees through training and development, providing sufficient information to the customers and ensuring that competent staffs are recruited will ensure that entities remain competitive to achieve their goals.
Reference list
Bowen, D 1986, ‘Managing Customers as Human Resources in Service Organizations,’ Human Resource Management, Vol. 25 no. 3, pp. 371-383.
Chiu, R, & Luk, V 2002, ‘Retaining and motivating employees: Compensation preferences in Hong Kong and China,’ Personnel Review, vol. 31 no. 4, pp. 402–431.
Francis, H, & Keegan, A 2006, ‘The changing face of HRM: in search of balance,’ Human Resource Management Journal, vol. 16 no. 3, pp. 231-249.
Friedman, B 2007, ‘Globalization Implications for Human Resource
Management Roles,’ Employ responses Rights Journal, vol. 19, pp. 157-171. Available at http://runebergendorff.dk/opendir/Globalization%20Implications%20for%20HRM%20R oles,%20Friedman.pdf Graf, A 2007, ‘Changing roles of customers: consequences for HRM,’ International Journal of Service Industry Management, Vol. 18 no. 5, pp. 491 – 509.
Hofstede, G 2001, Culture’s consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions and organizations across nations (2nd edition). Sage: Thousand Oaks, CA.
Ullah, I, &Yasmin, R 2013, ‘The Influence of Human Resource Practices on Internal Customer Satisfaction and Organizational Effectiveness,’ Journal of Internet Banking & Commerce, Vol. 18 no. 2, pp. 1-28.
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Read chapters 2, 4, 5 and 6 of the text and the case studies at the end of these chapters. Then answer the questions about the Rocky Mountain Outfitters and the Reliable Pharmaceutical Service case studies at the end of these chapters. Make your answers short (2-3 sentences).
Suggestions and Guidelines:
• Use your own words and Thoughts. Plagiarism and/or cheating will result in a grade of Zero.
• Give short answers to each question (not more than 3-4 lines)
• Total page length (not more than 3 pages, 300 words per page)
• 1-inch margins, Double spaced, 12-point, Times New Roman font
SAMPLE ANSWER
CHAPTER 2: RMO CASE
How extensive would the training needs be for the RMO staff?
The new RMO staff will need very extensive training in system design, requirements identification, analytical skills and project management.
What type of training would be required?
Training in project management, programming language and technical skills would be required.
Is it just about new programming languages, or is it broader than that?
The developer not only need to be knowledgeable on programming languages, which should include java and C++, but also be technical and know how to use tools.
How far can the project progress before the decision is made?
The project can progress through all the phases because regardless of the approach used, planning, analysis, designing and implementation activities are vital in each approach.
Do you think she is correct? Why or why not?
Yes, because both are approaches to designing a system. However, most systems that are being designed today employ both approaches.
Do some types of projects require an OO approach?
Yes, especially the customer oriented ones need to be natural and intuitive, benefits which are derived from object oriented approach.
What life cycle variations are under consideration?
Barbra may need to consider including the analysis phase, system design phase, and system testing.
What else might she do to speed up the development process?
She might need to define what the system’s requirements are and then find possible solutions that fit the system and plan on gradual release of the system parts that are complete.
What else might she consider adapting from the United Process, from Extreme Programming, or from Scrum?
She might adapt the responsive nature of scum to change since the environment is rapidly changing.
CHAPTER 2: FOCUSING ON RELIABLE PHARMACEUTICAL SERVICE.
What are some of the risks of taking this approach?
High possibilities in making mistakes, difficulties in making corrections, and impossible to add forgotten components into the system.
What planning and management difficulties would this approach entail?
Rigidity, ineffectiveness, and generalized assumptions. The approach is rigid in that once a plan is made it cannot be reversed and requires too much planning.
What are some of the risks of taking this approach?
High likelihood of committing mistakes that cannot be reversed, and it may be difficult to meet original requirements.
What planning and management difficulties would this approach entail?
Planning needs to be very thorough and it may overburden an analyst since analysis and designing may need to be done at the same time.
Briefly describe what you would include in each iteration?
The four parts that may be included in iteration include the inception, elaboration, construction and finally transition.
Describe how incremental development might apply to this project.
This approach involves finishing several parts and then releasing them to the end users. When more parts are complete, they are integrated with other parts and made operational. In this project, reliable may complete designing the system dealing with basic patient information, then make it operational as it still designs other information systems.
How would an iterative approach decrease project risks compared with the first approach?
By breaking the risks from their complex nature to simple ones that solutions can be provided with ease. It also offers opportunity for changing plans in case a fault is noticed.
How might it decrease risks compared with the second approach?
It ensures the most vital components of a system are implemented by giving them priority unlike the second approach where phases are overlapped.
What are some risks the iterative approach might add to the project?
Early release of a system part may cause rejection from the end users and distort the whole system since it may require developers to rethink or re-strategize.
CHAPTER 4: ROCKY MOUNTAIN OUTFITTERS CASE
What advice would you give your project team to help it manage the user expectations?
The project team should treat user information with seriousness and adjust to changes as per user expectation. All the users’ views should be incorporated into the system being developed.
What early planning can you do now to ensure that the scope is realistic—to meet the need but within the time and budget allotted?
A feasibility plan will be necessary in ensuring that the scope is not only realistic but also attainable within the allotted time and budget. This will be achieved by clearly defining the content of the project, its intended purpose, and the extent of project work that the team is to cover.
CHAPTER 4: RELIABLE PHARMACEUTICALS
What information-gathering methods are most appropriate to learn about requirements from Reliable own management staff and other employees?
Through interviewing them or observing them while they are using the system.
From client health-care organizations?
By talking to them or interviewing them.
From suppliers?
Through talking to them and interviewing them, and studying what other companies do.
Should patients in client health-care facilities participate in the information-gathering process? If so, why, and in what ways should they participate?
Yes, the patients should participate. This is because in system development and design, excellent outcome will be achieved if all stakeholders are involved.
3. With respect to gathering information from suppliers and clients, how deeply within those organizations should systems analysts look when defining requirements?
They need an in-depth knowledge not only of how the system should function, but also be knowledgeable of the organizations core business in order to fully come up with the appropriate system requirement.
How might Reliable deal with supplier and client reluctance to provide detailed information about their internal operations?
Reliable might consider providing incentive for them to participate such as bonuses or discounts.
4. For which user community or communities (internal, supplier, or client) are prototypes likely to be most beneficial? Why?
Prototypes are most useful to the internal users because it enables them to identify areas that need changes. Necessary adjustments are then implemented to improve the final system so that the final system will be very efficient.
CAPTER 5: RMO CASE
QN 1 Discuss the implications that such a change would have on the scope of the project. How might this new capability change the list of stakeholders the team would involve when collecting information and defining the requirements?
If ROM decides to incorporate customer charge and payment plan, then it will have to be included in their system and not be a research item in the RMO initial list of things. In the scope, the project will now have to stretch and even include customer account, details on customer purchase history, and payment plan details.
Would the change have any effect on other RMO systems or system projects planned or under way?
The changes will have insignificant effect on the plan underway since adjustments can be made along the way to achieve the most desired and efficient system.
Would the change have any effect on the project plan originally developed by Barbara Halifax?
The changes will have no effect on Barbra’s original plan.
In other words, is this a minor change or a major change?
This makes the changes minor and insignificant.
What events need to be added to the event table?
What needs to be added in the event table include
• customer wants order delivered
• customer wants to recommend orders to friends.
QN. 2 Complete the event table entries for these additional events.
Event Trigger Source Use case Response Destination
Customer wants order delivered
Delivery request
Customer Look up delivery options Delivery details customer
Customer wants to recommend to friends
What activities or use cases for existing events might be changed because of a charge account and payment plan? Explain.
If charge account and payment plan are incorporated into the system, then the charge adjustment might be merged with the charge account. The payment plan will cause changes in ‘update customer account’ use case.
3. What are some additional things and relationships among things that the system would be required to store because of the charge account and payment plan?
Things to be stored include payment plan options and customer account details.
Modify the entity-relationship diagram and the class diagram to reflect these charges.
Order
Order ID
Order date
Order amount
Customer
Customer name
Customer I.D
Account details
Address
Telephone
Customer charge
Purchase history
Charge adjustments
Payment plan.
Cash
1st installment
2nd installment
Chapter 5: FOCUSING ON RELIABLE PHARMACEUTICALS
QN.1 Create an event table that lists information about system Requirements
Event Trigger Source Use case Response Destination
Nursing homes(clients)needs prescription order Order inquiry Nursing homes (clients) Place New order Order details Clients
Management wants to record prescription orders Record orders Management Update records
Time to produce order summaries Start of each 12 hour Produce order summary reports Order summary reports management
Need to update patient information
Patient information update Nursing home/clients Update patient records
Need to generate order fulfillment forms End of week Create order fulfillment Order fulfillment report Management
Management need to update drug inventory Update drug inventory Management Update inventory
QN.2 Create an entity-relationship diagram that shows the data storage requirements for the following portion of the system:
Order Item
Price
Item I.D
Quantity
Price
Prescription order
Order ID
Order date
Order amount
Nursing home (Client)
Patient’s name
Address
Age
CHAPTER 6 : ROCK MOUNTAIN OUTFITTERS CASE STUDY
QN. 1 Develop DFD fragments for all of the events not documented
Order status inquiry 6
Order status details
Order status inquiry
7
Order
Fulfillment
notice
8
Back order notification
Back order notice
Catalog request 11
C
QN. 2
QN.3 Customer order form
Customer
Requests
Order
CHAPTER 6. RELIABLE PHARMACEUTICALS
QN.1
End week report Order fulfillment report
Order inquiry
New order update drug inventory
Update patient details
QN.2
Monthly
report
QN.3
patient
Requests
Update
QN.4
Order request
Place new order
QN.5. Physical billing procedure does not have to be developed because it can be automated in the system.
Reference
John W. Satzinger, Robert B. Jackson & Stephen D. Burd, (2010). System analysis and design in a changing world. Fifth Edition.
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Assignment Details
Open Date Sep 21, 2014 12:00 AM
Graded? Yes
Points Possible 100.0
Re-submissions Allowed? No
Assignment Instructions
This is your final assignment. It will evaluate you understanding of policy, you ability to evaluate cases and if you can apply your knowledge to a hypothetical scenario. I have placed some readings in the last lesson that can help you with the questions.
You have three questions to answer. Remember to answer your questions thoroughly and with substance. Do not just say something. Prove to me you know and understand the material by citing all relevant material. Please attach your response, and name your exam as follows: lastname.intl507.finalessay.doc.
Make sure that you review the writing criteria. This is extremely important because effective writing is an important skill for all graduate students. When writing your papers and exams you want to correct for grammar and composition.
You should also consider building an effective organization for all written work. You want to have a good introductory paragraph that conveys your thesis and organization and that provides a summary of your findings. Etc.
Ensure that you use proper citations.
Question 1:
George Kennan authored a policy document—NSC 10/2—that characterized covert action as those activities “so planned and conducted that any U.S. government responsibility for them is not evident to unauthorized persons and that if uncovered the U.S. government can plausibly disclaim any responsibility for them” (Scott and Rosati 2007).
Is this a realistic expectation for any covert action? Meaning, can we really expect the U.S. hand to remain “hidden” even if the action is discovered? If this is not realistic then why continue with the policy of plausible deniability? Or are there measures that can be put in place to make it a continued viable policy?
Question 2:
Compare any two of the cases discussed in the course (except the Bay of Pigs and the Berlin Tunnel). Base your analysis with the questions provided in the “Lecture Notes” for Week 1:
(1) What was the objective of each operation? Was there an overriding policy imperative or were they missions to gain access to the adversary’s information?
(2) What oversight or legal review occurred during their planning?
(3) Who or which organizations were accountable for the operations? What turf issues arose prior to or during the operations?
(4) What resources were necessary to successfully carry them out?
(5) What was the cost/benefit analysis of each operation? Weigh their risks, especially when they are publicly exposed.
(6) In evaluating each operation, what objectives were achieved and what unintended consequences occurred?
Question 3:
Please review this hypothetical situation and indicate (a) whether covert action is appropriate (b) identify the risks and benefits of a covert action (c) identify legal hurdles and (c) decide whether the President should inform all the relevant Congressional intelligence committees or limit knowledge to the “Gang of Eight.” Take into consideration political ramifications and possible blowback.
Concern has built up over Bashar al-Assad’s hold on power and his actions against the Syrian opposition. Through a variety of sources, the CIA believes it has a reliable asset inside the regime that could either organize a coup or “eliminate” the leader. The President has asked you to give him an honest assessment on the possibilities for both.
Answer thoroughly. Make sure to substantiate your responses.
Submission
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SAMPLE ANSWER
The Concept of Covert Action
Q.1
The concept of plausible deniability in US intelligence agency
US government has protected the national interest using ways that other governments and the citizens have limited information about. When the Soviet Union wanted to dominate the Middle East by attacking Afghanistan, US government entered into the war to assist Afghans to push Soviet Union outside the country.[1] Additionally, the then prime minister of Iran Mohammad wanted to nationalize the Iranian oil, the US government through their intelligence assisted British government to overthrow Mohammad’s government and instilled their puppet as the prime minister. Finally, the US government is said to have a hand in the assassination of Patrice Lumumba the president of Congo in 1960 since he gained support of the soviet union to resist the force of the political opponents.[2] There other many cases that the use intelligence has participated in other countries’ affairs to gain the interest of the nation in a way that remains silent to the public domain. Therefore, any clandestine way to influence governments, organizations or events of other countries in a silent manner is what is referred to as the covert action. Covert actions are designed by the central intelligence agency to alter foreign economic, political or military reality on total secrecy. As said by Corke, it is the most controversial level of intelligence because on top of its secrecy, it requires lethal force in some cases.[3]
According to US security Act, covert action is “an operation that is planned and executed as to hide the identity of or permit plausible denial by the sponsor.” In the CIA Act, it is referred to as a special activity, both military and political, which the Government can clearly and legally deny. The CIA is the only branch of security in US that is legally allowed to operate the covert actions. This means that the covert action can be legally denied by the government or the officials even after the exposure of such acts.[4] For example, the assassination of President Patrice Lumumba has been denied by the US government through CIA yet the evidences show their participation in the assassination. All these acts, both good or bad, are done using covert action under plausible deniability that allows them to deny any act the government has done. In this manner, the question is; can US government clearly deny the ill acts that that they have performed and their hands remain clean about the issues? And is this the expectation of the covert actions?
Plausible deniability is the term coined by the Central Intelligence Agency around 1960s to describe the concealment of information from officials to protect them from any repercussions in the events that unpopular and illegal activities by the intelligence become a public knowledge. In espionage and politics, deniability is the ability of authoritative player and intelligence agencies to pass the buck and prevents blowback by furtively and stealthily organizing for an act to be taken on their behalf by another party presumably not connected with the key players. Coleman says that the plausible deniability is a legal concept, which gives the American the right to deny the acts after a covert action.[5] It denotes to the lack of evidence proving a particular allegation. The Standards of proofs always differ in criminal and civil cases. In civil cases, a customary of proof is “preponderance of the evidence” while in a criminal case, the standard is “beyond a reasonable doubt.” If an adversary lacks irrefutable proof of the allegation, one is able to plausibly deny the allegation even if it appears to be the truth
The acts of covert action should be accepted since in most cases, its benefits are realistic if it is intended to assist people. There is no reason why one country wants to nationalize oil so that other countries, which are not producers, continue to suffer. The main argument is that after overthrowing the government and pushing the Soviet Union out of Afghanistan, there is a party that should be responsible and answerable to the public.[6] Therefore, the plausible denial is an act that the US government enacted so that they cannot be questioned if the deal of the covert action goes bad. It is a defensive clause that leaves them clean even after performing unaccepted acts. For example, up to now the US government has not accepted that they had a hand in the assassination of Patrice Lumumba
In this manner, US government should not hide behind the plausible deniability after performing acts that should be answered. Coleman criticizes the government that why do they hold the responsibility when the deal of covert action goes good and deny when it goes bad.[7] Crush says that plausible deniability is an attempt to cheat the public and the target government of the ill actions that the government commits.[8] He says that the government should be responsible for both bad and good achievement it has done. Although Rubin says that nobody should be victimized in a court of law where there is no evidence, in this case, there is evidence that can only be accessed by few individuals in the security agency.[9] Therefore, the government should be answerable and responsible at the end of covert action if the intention of the action is to benefit citizens as said in the act of national security agency.
2
Case studies
Covert action of Afghanistan (1979-1089)
Following the Soviet incursion of Afghanistan in 1979, the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) launched the largest covert action in the world history to arm and assist the Afghan resistance. In the next ten years, Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, and U.S. provided the Afghans with a lot of money, weapons, and supplies, which included advanced anti-aircraft missiles and powerful guns. The armaments and assistance proved a decisive and neutralized Soviet support in the last stages of the conflict and ultimately causing the Soviet Union to come out from Afghanistan.
Operation Ajax of Iran (1953)
In 1951, Iran democratically elected Mohammed Mossadeq Prime Minister, who vied under a platform of nationalizing the Iranian domestic oil industries. At that time, the United Kingdom had a substantial oil interests in Iran through the Anglo-Persian Oil Company. Soon after the election, Mohammed nationalized the industry of oil, deeply disconcerting the British government. The British government under the then Prime Minister Winston Churchill asked the U.S. government to help him remove Mossadeq from power. Through a chain of covert actions, the CIA of America worked with the U.K Secret Intelligence Services to arrange for the fall of the Mossadeq government and put the Shah as the president of Iran.
Analysis of the case studies
The main objective of the US and other countries was to fight the Soviet Union from Afghanistan was the fear of the dominance of the union in the area. The Soviet Union had one agenda: to increase its borders towards the neighboring countries so as to dominate the area. Being one the petroleum region, the American and other countries such as Saudi Arabia feared the powers of the soviet to control the borders. In early stages, the US government had no main reason as why to fight the soviet through their CIA but only to punish them. American leaders, politicians, Republicans, and Democrats, feared the Soviets were positioning themselves for a takeover of Middle Eastern oil. It is for this reason that the other countries together with US entered to fight for the withdrawal of Soviet Union from the country.
In Ajax operation, the main objective was to remove democratically elected Iranian primes minister who attempted to nationalize the Iran’s oil. The United Kingdom was afraid of the attempt of the prime minister to nationalize the petroleum hence secretively planned on ways to overthrow the government of Mohammad Mossadegh. The US got the interest of the British government following the consequences countries would have after the nationalizing of the petroleum as suggested by the then prime minister. The afghan fighters were defending their government before the soviet came in to support the rivals. In both cases, there was no legal review as the parties wanted to execute their activities with little knowledge of the public and other department of the governments. Davenporta notes that no Americans trained had a direct contact with the mujahedeen.[10]
For Afghanistan, there are several organizations that were accountable for the action. The first one is the Soviet Union who wanted to dominate the area and extends it borders towards the southern part of the country. The afghan of course had to fight back to defend their democratically elected government. The US through their CIA secretively entered into the war by training the Afghans since the dominant of the Soviet Union in the area would threaten the growth of other countries especially when the region was the chief producer of oil. This was the probable turf issue that brought the fight for eviction of soviet forces from Afghanistan. It also included organization such as Britain’s MI and Pakistan secret service known as Inter Service Intelligence. On the other hand, the Ajax operation was dominated by the United Kingdom and the American CIA.[11] The CIA used a number of groups especially the Iranian youths to create a condition in the country that could easily permit a coup operation. The prior issue to this coup problem was the nationalization of the Iranian oil that could threaten the profits of Anglo Iran Oil Company that is now known as BP.
As said by the CIA in their documentary, the Afghanistan covert action is the longest and highly expensive action in their history. Additionally, following the aids from other countries such as Pakistan, Iran, and china, in deed it is the most expensive covert action the global has ever experienced. There was supply of billon of dollars to the afghan militants through the Pakistan secret service, an operation known as operation cyclone. Stanton argues that about $ 3 billion was channeled to the country to equip and train the troops. There were also provision of antiaircraft weapons, stinger missiles that were provided by the countries such United Kingdom and the republic of China.[12] Generally, the covert action of Afghanistan has been very expensive to the US to appoint that there has been senate debate to withdraw American troops from the country. Although the amount of resources used in the Afghanistan covert action is incomparable with Ajax operation, the British government had to use good amount to overthrow Mohammad’s government. The American CIA funded compliable Iranians to pose as communists so as to create an environment of coup activity. The resources were not limited to bribing the local news houses to air propaganda against the then prime minister Cormac reveals that the CIA planned, implemented and funded operation Ajax.[13]
The Ajax operation was to prevent the prime minister from nationalizing oil. The nationalization of oil is unlawful since it prevents privatization of oil from countries that do not produce oil. As much as it was a move to benefit other countries there was other ways of doing it not the coup way. One benefits of the Ajax covert action it that it prevented the nationalization of the petroleum that could pose high prices of oil to all countries globally. Exposure of the covert action of Afghanistan has no risk at all following the dictatorship of the Soviet Union especially when they would have been left to dominate the oil rich countries. A study carried by Stanton reveals that most people were very happy with the American move but as at now very sad with the covert action of America that makes them use most of the government revenues outside the country in military.[14]
One of the main objectives achieved in the Afghanistan covert action is to fight the Soviet Union out of the Middle East. Thus, it has helped in the stabilization of the country and its neighbors. However, there has been revelation that the funds that were used by US government to assist Afghanistan is the major root of militants group such as al Qaeda in the middle east countries. Moreover, the existence of the US troops in Afghanistan up to now is the sole reason that groups such as al-Qaida are against US government. Ajax operation achieved the prevention of nationalization of oil that would see countries that do not produce oil spend a lot on petroleum.
Q.3
Covert action is one of the policies the countries have used to gain national interest. On the other hand, the US has used this technique to protect the citizens in particular war tone areas without physically getting involved.[15] It is for those two main reasons that the covert action becomes very appropriate currently and in future. Following the broad ranges of activities, the covert action has been viewed a useful tool for intelligence that gives room for the third party to get involved in activities of interest.[16] Most used by the white house, convert action has provided results that would have not been gotten if not for the secrecy. In line with the national security act 503 which states that “An activity or activities of the United States Government to influence political, economic, or military conditions abroad, where it is intended that the role of the United States Government will not be apparent or acknowledged publicly.” Convert actions are put into action because the policies makers believe and know that secret means is the ultimate ways of achieving specific and desired goals.
Following the success of the convert action, it remains appropriate to be incorporated in the intelligence sector of the US. Stanton notes that in a world where every country is greedy for supremacy, certain actions such as diplomacy have narrow chances to solve the interests of the government, hence, intelligence should be used to resolve such issues.[17] For example, the use of covert action in 1954 helped the government to overthrow Lumumba government in Congo in 1961 to prevent the establishment of soviet beachhead that that could interfere with the US economic interest. Although the US government has been accused of applying the convert action areas of their interest, cases have been seen when their interest is to assist affected and unstable governments. For example, the US government has funded The African Mission in Somalia (AMISOM) to eliminate the effects of Al-shabaab militant group currently terrorizing Somali.[18] Therefore, as part the national intelligence, the covert action is appropriate and necessary for individuals and organizations that pose threat to other people and government. In the US congress meeting, the proponents of covert action argued that there is a need for the covert since diplomacy and democracy alone cannot protect the interest and well-being of the US citizens.[19]
One of the main advantages of covert action is in the principle of plausible deniability. This is the principle that is clearly illustrated by the Security Council, which directs the CIA to operate against the groups that pose threat to the interest of the country. As such, it is a mechanism that is used to defend and act on opponents without declaring wars between the countries. It is for the secrecy of the covert action that did not make the soviet group attack US directly when US government cropped in to the war between them and Afghanistan. Converts actions provide the chance to reinforce overt influencing activities to accelerate the prospects of the success. Rubin accentuates that to be successful, convert action form part of large scheme of the foreign policy.[20] It provides an opportunity for the government to get involved in the activities of the target country where overt commitments are not mature because of the situation of the target country. Therefore, it provides an option of silent removal from a particular situation when there is clear evidence that further involvement will not benefit the interest of the country.[21] Generally, the action provides the CIA agency with an excuse to deny the charges and the allegation of involvement in wars between other countries because there is lack of evidence. For example, it is said that the CIA had an upper hand in the assassination of Patrice Lumumba, the then president of Congo; however, they cannot be victimized since there is lack of evidence.
One of the major risks of the convert action is that it can result to an unending war with opponent country. For example, an attempt to eliminate the al Qaeda militants by the US government turned to be a great war between this group and the US government.[22] The militant group declared a war against US to an extent of bombing properties of US in other countries. The same scenario happens to the states that were assisting Somali to remove Al-Shabaab militant from the country. The militant group is currently terrorizing countries such as Kenya that sent their military to assist Somali. As said by Radsan, another risk of covert action is the potential embarrassment of retaliation against perpetrators of convert action in the case of its disclosure.[23] In the end, the US congress witnesses argued that the government has been habitually embarrassed and criticized domestically and on a global scale as a result of covert actions. Not to forget, convert action ends up in blood shade and sufferings of citizens of the target country. Additionally, the covert action was put in place to protect the president and senior officials in the government to attack other countries without the knowledge of the public and the attacked country, however, if it is exposed it can lead to a serious war.[24] Lastly, there are financial risks both on the side of the target country and the donating country. The US government has used a lot of money on the convert troops and military on covert agendas, thus, the country is risking a lot of money on such acts while other developments remain stagnant in the country.
The legality of covert action has been a matter of discussion. While some people term it as unethical act that should be prohibited, some also criticize it as very illegal. The hurdles of the legality of the covert action has been discussed under the one its operation line known as plausible deniability. Denial plausibility directs that the government has the right to deny the actions when they are exposed in public domain.[25] Hence, questions arise that why would the government deny activities done in accordance with the laws hence it has received legal critics. However, the executive branch of the government has proved this action as legal. The executive order of the US intelligence activities issued on 1981 by President Reagan states that one of the functions of the intelligence is to conduct special activities signed by the president. The section 102d of US intelligence states that “CIA will perform functions and duties related to intelligence affecting the national security” Thomas Polgar an employee central Congressional committee said in a symposium that covert action exists and it is legal.[26] However, he said that states only need more controls to know when to keep the convert action in good taste accordance to the law. Crush posits that it is not the policies of covert actions that are in doubt, but the keenness and the motivations of individuals implementing and approving the actions.[27] Therefore, it is important to note that the laws of guiding the security in US allows the CIA to conduct special activities such as covet action which makes covert action legal.
The definition of the covert action gives a clear explanation that the act is a secret one hence should involve few individuals as possible. Corke says that one reason why the covert action should involve few people is the characteristic of deniability once it is exposed.[28] The other reason why it should remain secret is the reason that the government participates to fight another country whose actions are not directly affecting the country. Hence, when such information is leaked to have been signed by the government, it portrays a bad image of the country. As such, the president should limit his/her information only to the CIA to avoid political ramifications. Coleman gives an example of good secrecy that led to the death of Osama Bin Laden, which was only known when the US government announced it publicly.[29] Limiting the information to few people leaves room for easy withdrawal when the mission cannot be achieved. The covert action is also defended by plausible deniability that allows the president and the government to deny the allegation if in any case they are exposed to the public.
Callanan, James. Covert Action in the Cold War : US Policy, Intelligence, and CIA Operations. London: I.B. Tauris, 2010.
Coleman, Denise Youngblood. “Foreign Relations.” Iran Country Review, 158. 2013.
Corke, Sarah-Jane. US Covert Operations and Cold War Strategy : Truman, Secret Warfare and the CIA, 1945-53. London: Routledge, 2008.
Cormac, Rory. “Coordinating Covert Action: The Case of the Yemen Civil War and the South Arabian Insurgency.” Journal Of Strategic Studies 36, no. 5 (October 2013): 692.
Crush, J. S. Covert operations : clandestine migration, temporary work and immigration policy in South Africa / Jonathan Crush. n.p.: Cape Town, 2007.
Davenport, Christian. “Understanding Covert Repressive Action: The Case of the U.S. Government against the Republic of New Africa.” Conflict Resolution, 2005, 120.
Radsan, A. John. “An Overt turn on covert action.” Saint Louis University Law Journal 53, 2009, 485. LexisNexis Academic.
Rubin, Barnett R. Afghanistan From the Cold War Through the War on Terror. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013.
Stanton, Andrea L. L., et al. Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Asia, and Africa : An Encyclopedia. Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications, 2012.
[1] Crush, J. S. Covert operations : clandestine migration, temporary work and immigration policy in South Africa / Jonathan Crush. n.p.: Cape Town, 2007.
[2] Callanan, James. Covert Action in the Cold War : US Policy, Intelligence, and CIA Operations. London: I.B. Tauris, 2010
[3] Corke, Sarah-Jane. 2008. US Covert Operations and Cold War Strategy : Truman, Secret Warfare and the CIA, 1945-53. London: Routledge, 2008.
[9] Rubin, Barnett R. Afghanistan From the Cold War Through the War on Terror. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013.
[10] Davenport, Christian. “Understanding Covert Repressive Action: The Case of the U.S. Government against the Republic of New Africa.” Conflict Resolution, 2005, 120.
[11] Davenport, Christian. “Understanding Covert Repressive Action: The Case of the U.S. Government against the Republic of New Africa.” Conflict Resolution, 2005, 120.
[12] Stanton, Andrea L. L., et al. Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Asia, and Africa : An Encyclopedia. Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications, 2012.
[13] Cormac, Rory. “Coordinating Covert Action: The Case of the Yemen Civil War and the South Arabian Insurgency.” Journal Of Strategic Studies 36, no. 5 (October 2013): 692.
[14] Stanton, Andrea L. L., et al. Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Asia, and Africa : An Encyclopedia. Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications, 2012.
[15] Callanan, James. Covert Action in the Cold War : US Policy, Intelligence, and CIA Operations. London: I.B. Tauris, 2010
[17] Stanton, Andrea L. L., et al. Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Asia, and Africa : An Encyclopedia. Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications, 2012.
[18] Stanton, Andrea L. L., et al. Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Asia, and Africa : An Encyclopedia. Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications, 2012.
[19] Davenport, Christian. “Understanding Covert Repressive Action: The Case of the U.S. Government against the Republic of New Africa.” Conflict Resolution, 2005, 120.
[20] Rubin, Barnett R. Afghanistan From the Cold War Through the War on Terror. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013.
[21] Cormac, Rory. “Coordinating Covert Action: The Case of the Yemen Civil War and the South Arabian Insurgency.” Journal Of Strategic Studies 36, no. 5 (October 2013): 692.
[22] Rubin, Barnett R. Afghanistan From the Cold War Through the War on Terror. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013.
[23] Radsan, A. John. “An Overt turn on covert action.” Saint Louis University Law Journal 53, 2009, 485. LexisNexis Academic.
[24] Cormac, Rory. “Coordinating Covert Action: The Case of the Yemen Civil War and the South Arabian Insurgency.” Journal Of Strategic Studies 36, no. 5 (October 2013): 692.
[25] Radsan, A. John. “An Overt turn on covert action.” Saint Louis University Law Journal 53, 2009, 485. LexisNexis Academic.
[26] Crush, J. S. Covert operations : clandestine migration, temporary work and immigration policy in South Africa / Jonathan Crush. n.p.: Cape Town, 2007.
[27] Crush, J. S. Covert operations : clandestine migration, temporary work and immigration policy in South Africa / Jonathan Crush. n.p.: Cape Town, 2007.
[28] Corke, Sarah-Jane. 2008. US Covert Operations and Cold War Strategy : Truman, Secret Warfare and the CIA, 1945-53. London: Routledge, 2008.
This is a group report, which are consisted of 4 people. The rest of people in the group are doing their own work, and I need to work on ***TASK NUMBER 5.***
Tasks we have divided are:
1- Executive Summary
2- Brief outline of New Trade Theory
3- Brief outline of Porters Theory of national Competitive advantage
4- Outline the current position and issues of the Australian industry you have chosen
5- (THIS ONE) Outline and justify what industry strategies and government policies you would recommend be adopted to improve Australia’s position in the industry for the short and long term. (THIS ONE)
6- Conclusion
SAMPLE ANSWER
Industrial Strategies and Government Policies
Over the last decades, the airline industry of Australia has been faced with stiff competition that has seen other players such as Singapore airline making remarkable profits at the behest of the former. Homsombat and Fu (2014) note that unless something serious is done, the industry will still continue to register losses as the Asian airlines make huge profits and continue dominating the market. As such, it is upon the government and the management to employ strategies and policies that will ensure the airline industry survives in the international airline market. This section of the paper presents policies and strategies that will see the company rejuvenates to its dominance in the airline industry.
Industrial Strategies
Lowering prices and offering affordable tariffs
One of the strategies to attract customers is by lowering prices in a manner that does not affect the business. Although quanta’s authorities say that the increase of travel charges is specifically based on the increase of fuel cost, consumers are weary since other airlines charge relatively low prices yet have the same fuel costs. Homsombat and Fu (2014) say that the high charges have swayed local consumers to preferring the Asian airlines over domestic airlines. An example of the continuous increase of fare price is evidenced in March 2014. One way flight on Qantas Jumbo from Australia to London has a $380 fuel charge, while it costs $340 on an A380 to the United States (Cavusgil et. al., 2014). Therefore, are the imposts really fair? Fuel prices have been at generally high, balancing between $US120 and $US140 a barrel (Cavusgil et. al., 2014). Passengers have been benefiting from the stiff competition from state-sponsored Chinese and Middle Eastern airlines, which keep on driving down fares on strategic routes to Australia. It suggests that airlines, including Qantas and other Australian airlines, are losing big money and dominance on long-haul routes. Lowering of rates has been the strategy of the current commanders of the airline industry. For example, in the last decade, Middle East giants such as Qatar, Emirates, and Etihad lowered their prices, and at the same time had superb networks (Homsombat and Fu,2014). New airlines such as airAsiaX and china southern airline will dominate the industry due to their strategy of low rates
. Therefore, one of the best strategies for the Australian industry is to lower their tariffs and the company will attract international and domestic customers that will not only bring profits but also assist the company to strive through the stiff competition.
Initiation of innovation
Australian airline has to fight to be among the first to initiate innovation. As air travel is often associated with high risk and faces skepticism from consumers, Aviation organizations combat this negative stereotype with increased comfort ability. Therefore, efforts to initiate innovation towards comfort and infrastructure are ways to assure customers that their wellbeing is the concern of the company (Airlines Industry Profile, 2014). Australian customers have been leaving the airline for years. Primarily, it was because of cabin offerings. Malaysia, Cathay pacific and Singapore airline are the veterans of free drinks that were started in 1960s.
Qantas and other airlines reluctantly followed. Czinkota (2010) articulates that originality is something that makes customers believes in you. This can be seen through; “that nobody would believe any Mercedes Benz manufactured in Africa since the originality of Benz is somewhere far from Africa” (Czinkota 2010). In 1990s, the airlines of Singapore led the industry with seatback videos and games for economy passengers. Virgin Atlantic and emirates also adopted the entertainment system that pleased many customers. Inextricably, Qantas, an Australian airline was still stoic in its resistance. Gao and Shi (2011) suggest that Australian airlines had no reason for charging such high prices without these new aviation features. At that time, airlines that were the first movers in innovation took over from the Australian airlines. As such, other companies like Qantas of Australia should employ innovation as the only strategy that attracts customers to the services and mold popularity in the country instead of copying others.
The Australian airline should recognize that to sustain the differentiation, the company must maintain a continuous development, and be in a position to dispose programs or services that do not provide competitive differentiation any more.
Merger and alliance strategy
The Australia airline should use the merger and alliance strategy to dominate the market. As defined by Peng (2013), merger strategy is the system by which two or more companies come together or merge to form one company with strong objective and diversified ideas from different individuals. One of the major factors in the Australian industry is that the domestic competition between local airlines such as Qantas and other airlines does not prompt growth. Therefore, it may be advantageous for aviation companies to merge in order to deplete competitive pricing and allow for greater growth and development. One major benefit of merger is the creation of a large customer base and the rebranding opportunity of the organization. Although mergers were discouraged during regulated era, they have been very effective during the deregulated period (Prince & Simon, 2009). Those alliances have not materialized so much, but they might be resurrected in future to assist the firms that are heading towards bankruptcy (Cavusgil et. al., 2012). Additionally, major carriers may suggest mergers, and some new entrants into the market might be absorbed in a future wave of airline industry consolidations. As much as this method had been started in Australia, its full implementation has not been given a serious focus (Cavusgil et. al., 2014). For instance, Virgin airline charges an average of $310 to US but not charges the levy to Europe since the company is in a strategic alliance with Etihad airline. Therefore, to become relevant in the competitive airline industry, Australia airlines should form a merged cooperation to consolidate resources, technology, and customers to compete with rivals such as Qatar Emirates.
Staff trainings
Australian aviation organizations such as Quanta’s, need extensive staff training. Building positive relationships with customers will ensure satisfied and repeat flyers. Training must run to all employees within the organisation, and the training must align with the business strategy and direction. Nand Singh and Power (2013) explains that it is one of the major factors that brought Singapore airline to where it is. Senior managers and all staff members require functional skills in addition to the skills they possess in their area of professional work. For Singapore, they believed training is next to godliness (Peng, 2013). By training the staff on regular changes (including the CEO), will ensure factors such as improper fare payments are dealt with in accordance to how the rivals charge their customers. It is for that reason that training managers and employees on a regular occasion is required in the industry.
Government policies
Government policies
for the government of Australia, open skies agreement with other competitive nations will give room for price reduction. Australia has signed polices such as these with countries such as the United States of America. Although the Australian government trade with numerous countries that have not yet joined open skies policies, The Open Skies policy eliminates interferences of flights between two countries which paves the way for additional competitors (Peng, 2013). For Australia the signed agreement between itself and the US has enabled Australian airlines such as Qantas to increase its flight services with up to forty-eight flights landing weekly in the mainland of US. These creating many add on affects for Australia with Increased profits and awareness, as well as its competitor stance against US airlines (Cavusgil et. al., 2014). With such outcomes, important agreement and policies between countries like Singapore and other airline oriented countries proves that growth and development of Australian airline industry is still productive. Potential growth in clientele, price reductions and profit increases as well as greater market share are all potential outcomes that policies such as these allow for nations and their growing industries. Therefore if polices such as the Open Skies policy was to be iniated and signed by largely dominated airline nations then potential growth due to improved market availability, greater profits and lower costs will enable increasing competition and nations ability to grow.
By creating awareness of agreement policies, especially with companies in Asia where fare is quite high, deregulated conflicting business will be implemented after lowering the national security enabling travelling to be easy for travellers. Ideally if the Australian government were to sign a policy that regulates taxes and fees than they would be equally aligned with competitor countries allowing for the increase in their expansion and development of airlines.
As much as the Australian government has taken on US airline processes and procedures which has increased the amount per trip Captor, Australian airlines have still been subject to poor growth as fees and taxes remain a heavy burden upon the Australian airline industry (Cavusgil et. al., 2012). For the Australian government to reduce these burdens a review of taxes and fees would be a must and in this case the lowering of tariffs and taxes imposed on the Australians airlines would be a necessity. Nand ,Singh and Power (2013) argue that the fees have been a source of dominance of other airlines in countries. While possessing the ability to offer cheaper ticket with a deregulated market facilitates the loyalty of the customer, expensive air ticket is one of the factor that destroy the engagement of the customer. Therefore, for customers choosing between Singapore and Australian airlines little consideration for choice is needed.
A rate of return policy is in some cases used as a restriction to direct judgments by lowering of the prices per each trip made.That is the policy authority enabling a fair rate of return on the worth of the assets needed to produce those services. It gives incentives for the company to upsurge its “rate base” by capitalizing more on capital input that is relative to labor input; alternatively, the firm under rate-of-return limitation has comparatively more money than is required to manufacture any given output. This is an imperative source of inefficiency caused by the regulation.
Over-capitalization,is the tendency of companies to engross in excessive amounts of capital accretion to expand the volume of their profits. If companies’ profits to capital ratio are controlled at a certain level then there will be strong incentives for firms to invest in order to increase profits overall.
Therefor this alludes to the idea that the government should employ more policies that govern the Australian airspace to eliminate the unnecessarily traffics. Air services guided by the policy should review the aeronautical pricing for terminal navigation products in the first quarter as composed by Czinkota (2010) with a view to forming a framework that propagates the augmentation of air traffic services in Australia including major regional airports. The Government should then task the Aviation Policy Group agencies to launch clear criteria selections that are aligned with the complexity and nature of operations at people’s locations that will assist to determine when new, modified or a substitute air traffic services and facilities are needed. The policy will ensure that there is no air space traffic that can inconvenience the domestic flights and other international flights from other countries.
References
Airlines Industry Profile: Australia. (2014). Airlines Industry Profile: Australia, 1-33.
Cavusgil, S.T., Knight, G., Riesenberger, J.R., (2014) International Business: The New Realities 3e, Upper saddle River, N.J. : Pearson Prentice Hall.
Cavusgil, S.T., Knight, G., Riesenberger, J.R., Rammal, H.G., Freeman, S., (2012) International Business: The New Realities Australasian Edition, Pearson Australia.
De Roos, N, Mills, G, & Whelan, S 2010, ‘Pricing Dynamics in the Australian Airline Market’, Economic Record, 86, 275, pp. 545-562
Gao, T, & Shi, L 2011, ‘How Do Multinational Suppliers Formulate Mechanisms of Global Account Coordination? An Integrative Framework and Empirical Study’, Journal Of International Marketing, 19, 4, pp. 61-87
Homsombat, W, Lei, Z, & Fu, X 2014, ‘Competitive effects of the airlines-within-airlines strategy – Pricing and route entry patterns’,Transportation Research Part E, 63, pp. 1-16,
Nand, A, Singh, P, & Power, D 2013, ‘Testing an integrated model of operations capabilitiesAn empirical study of Australian airlines’,International Journal Of Operations & Production Management, 33, 7, pp. 887-911,
Peng, M., (2013) Global, Mason, Ohio, Southwestern Cengage Learning, (ON RESERVE)
For the Final Project for this course, select any government or nonprofit organization for which there is sufficient information to allow a thorough analysis of ethical or social justice issues. You may select your own organization if it is a government or nonprofit organization, but be aware of the need for scholarly objectivity and the need to protect confidentiality. Ethical researchers never begin any project with a hidden agenda or predetermined conclusion. If you do choose your own organization, do not identify it by name or precise location.
Your Final Project should include the following:
1) An introduction that describes the government or nonprofit organization, the setting, and any other information about the organization or related background that readers need in order to understand the organization and its ethical and social justice issues; a description of the ethical issues facing the organization and public administrators within the organization
2) An explanation of the ethical issues related to two or more of the philosophical theories that this course introduces
3) A summary of the major ethical challenges and conflicts of responsibility presented to individuals in the organization and to the organization as a whole
4) A summary of the strategies that the organization uses to maintain responsible conduct
5) An explanation of your recommendations for addressing the issues, including a rationale for your recommendations and an explanation of why they might be effective in addressing the issues, with consideration given to the possible involvement of guerrilla government employees
6) An analysis of the factors that would affect the implementation of the recommendations by using the ethical decision-making model
7) A description of the outcomes you would expect if the organization implemented your recommendations
8) An explanation of how the issues you raised are related to at least two of the four social justice themes (human rights, equality, liberty, and justice)
Your Final Project must demonstrate both breadth and depth of knowledge and critical thinking appropriate to graduate-level scholarship.
It must follow APA Publication Manual guidelines and be free of typographical, spelling, and grammatical errors.
The project should be 13–15 pages in length (double-spaced), not including the title page, abstract, and at least 8–10 scholarly resources, excluding any organizational brochures or other nonacademic sources.
Support your Final Project with specific references to all resources used in its preparation.
SAMPLE ANSWER
Ethics and social justice
Abstract
The National Education Association is the largest professional organization, and as well as labor union within the United States. It represents the public school teachers as well as many other support staff working in colleges and universities, including students who are studying to become teachers and the retired individuals. It is a volunteer based organization established in 1857, and was previously known as the National Teachers Association. It has undergone significant changes over the years such as including women as members, changing the name and generally improving its function. Unfortunately, there have also been negative changes, with the organization loosing focus of what is supposed to be its main function or reason for existence. This paper analyses the various ethical issues facing this volunteer organization which include oppressing the philosophical theories of republican and negative liberty, it is not for the good of all in terms of “equality”, and violating the rights of Libertarians.
Introduction
Within the United States, the National Education Association is the largest professional organization, as well as labor union, as it represents public school teachers alongside other support personnel, the faculty and staff from colleges and universities, students who are studying to become teachers, as well as the already retired members. This volunteer based organization was established back in 1857, during which it was known as National Teachers Association. However, in 1870, the name was reformed to National Education Association. Initially, women were not members, however before the change in name, the rule was changed and they were now allowed to also become members. The organization mainly relies on its members to finance the Association’s work. After this incorporation, the NEA has played a major role in ensuring many positive changes for teachers and students. The purpose of the union supporting these changes was so they could grant people human and civil rights. For example, they advocated against American Indians’ forced assimilation and child labor. They were able to stop these by using research to prove to the states’ legislatures that such institutions were negatively impacting children’s education (NEA, 2011). At this era, the NEA was indeed a true advocate for children.
In the 1920s, the United States experienced a period of teacher shortage, and since this was part of the organization’s role, NEA researched on the possible reasons for such an outcome. The results of their research showed that being overloaded with work, poor wages, and having many students of different ages, some of whom could not speak English, were the main reasons for many abandoning the teaching sector. Therefore, NEA recommended to the government that the situation may be salvaged when a Department of Education is put in place. This department would have a role of regulating school curriculum, training teachers, and hence improving the quality of education offered to the students. For almost ten years after this situation, This organization tried to increase the salaries of teachers so as to ensure they were comfortable with their work. Soon, the Depression came into full force, and the organization signed for membership into the Federal Advisory Committee on the Emergency in Education section. The main purpose of this committee was to ensure that schools received assistance since it routed federal aid towards them (NEA, 2011).
Later, in 1926, NEA formed yet another committee with the American Teachers Association (ATA), previously known as National Association of Teachers in Colored Schools (NATCS). This Joint Committee was aimed towards justice. Its primary goal was to improve the quality of education offered for blacks. This would be achieved through various objectives such as accrediting and acknowledging black schools. This was not all, the NEA also made a brave step by taking a stance against the Japanese/ American internment camps. During this time, soldiers were prohibited from leaving their camps in search of further education. However, after the NEA greatly supported the G.I Bill of Rights, soldiers who wanted to further their education were enabled to do so after the war. According to statistics, this Bill of rights paved room for more individuals to attend college, a number that had never been witnessed before (NEA, 2011). Higher education became for all, and not just for the wealthy people. As a result of the organization’s continued advocacy for the minorities, a Bilingual Education Act of 1968 was passed. In 1984, NEA also triggered the creation of a federal retirement equity law (NEA, 2011).
Ever since the inception of the NEA, ethical and social justices have been the major drivers. This is still the case, as noted by how the organization supports Minority Community Outreach, Priority Schools Campaign, and how they encourage the reform of Social Security Offsets. However, it has recently been on the spotlight for various reasons. They are discouraging merit pay, are against the No Child Left Behind Act, and are also opposing the charter schools. The National Education Association seems to have changed from what was its earlier stance regarding the educational excellence and advocacy. It is now turning into a powerful political union.
The ethical and social justice issues facing this organization include educational reform and access to education. Improving the quality of education is a major concern for most individuals. However, for this to happen, an educational reform must take place. Ever since this organization lost focus, its role in the education department has also become confusing. They are no longer advocating for children to get education, or to improve the quality of education. As a matter of fact, all the three Acts mentioned above, that NEA is against, are all reform ideas supposed to improve the quality of education for all children. The NEA is a liberal organization; however the same cannot be justified for its members. This is because they are being influenced by the conservative thoughts. The NEA, therefore, is against education reform, and so are the members. Unfortunately some of the members are not aware of what the organization’s views are. They have not yet realized that the union leaders, who are mainly said to be liberal, are at the fore front in making biased decisions.
Issues Related to Philosophical Theories
No Child Left Behind
The No Child Left Behind Act is one that will ensure schools become accountable. It is relative to the Theory of Action, one which enhanced educational reform in Texas, while the leader was Governor George W. Bush. This theory strictly requires accountability, transparency, and choice. The No Child Left Behind Act involves a plan which expects any member within the education field to be accountable. It also requires any data and information about schools, test results, performance analysis and others, to be availed to anyone who needs it, including parents (Bland, 2014). In this plan, parents should be given more choice in determining their child’s education. By implementing this Act, the National Education Association became worried that the government would get an opportunity to shame or embarrass them by harassing them. Additionally, they disagreed with the government on empowering parents as they felt that it would inhibit their roles as teachers. The Act is designed to decrease some of National Education Association abilities of controlling education and politics, thus the organization’s aim was to restrain accountability and parental involvement. Hence, propaganda to misinform the public was developed. The organization sabotaged the supporters of the No Child Left Behind Act at town hall meetings by planting their leaders amongst them to interrupt speakers with aggressive comments and then denounce the idea (Smyth, 2008).
Merit Pay
A poll was prepared by the Democratic Leadership Council to take statistics on the number of democrats, republicans, and independents who would support the merit pay for teachers. The results were overwhelming with 60% democrats, 65% republicans, and 73% independents (Hoff, 2008). This is proof that the country indeed has a great desire to make the change However; this is a threat to unions because membership enrollments will be affected if teachers quit the sector as the union will lose money. An issue to be noted is how most of the teachers who are members of the union are actually being forced to pay up the union dues, and more of them do not even want to be member’s anymore. The union subjects teachers from different states to unfair conditions. For instance, they are all expected to pay a uniform amount, despite the fact that their payments may differ from one state to the other. The performances of teachers also differ, and thus they cannot all be subjected to the same payments. Some are way better and more experienced than others. Therefore, having a uniform payment will hinder teachers from wanting to aim for higher levels since there will be no distinction (Wright, 2003). In this field, there are many excellent teachers who are working alongside the ineffective and those who do not care. This, however, does not affect their payments as it is still the same for all of them.
Charter Schools
In the present environment, the National Education Association and the American Federation of Teachers (AFT), do not pay great attention to the under-performing traditional schools. This is because by doing so, they will not be getting any benefits and they also do not want the public to see what is happening. However, if the under performing institution is a charter school, all focus will be on it (Prothero, 2014). This is a very unfortunate situation because the country needs diverse schools to ensure that the needs of diverse students are also met fully. As a matter of fact, the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) data pointed that the learning of minorities has increased far more in private and religious schools, compared to the situation in traditional schools (Shober, Manna & Witte, 2006). This is because there are more minority enrollments in charter schools than in traditional schools. There is also proof that charter schools thrive because they are not controlled by unions, while traditional schools controlled by unions do not last. It has also been noted that charter schools empower teachers and principals, while unions are against such an action. To effectively hinder the action of charter schools in the states, the union tagged on some political strings so they could get funding for the high priced smear campaigns meant to undermine charter schools (Antonucci, 2010).
Ethical or Social Justice Issues in Terms of Philosophical Theories
By resisting the No Child Left Behind Act, the NEA is also oppressing the philosophical theories of republican and negative liberty. There is a violation of the republican liberty of the institution of schools since there is a greater chance that the NEA will keep on interfering and taking steps to mitigate the progress of the NCLB. The negative liberty will always be in jeopardy since the institution of education will never be free to make any choices without being influenced by the NEA in the name of “equality” (Wright, 2003).
This union formed by teachers is supposed to benefit all the people involved, including the children. The idea of teachers being given an equal pay can be related to the positive theory of value and action, therefore it can also be given a utilitarian thought. However, since it does not consider children, it is not for the good of all in terms of “equality”.
The Union’s opposition to charter schools may be viewed by Libertarians as a violation to their rights. Parents must always have the freedom of choice, especially when it comes to deciding what may be best for their children, including deciding which schools to take their children (Wright, 2003). Therefore, the NEA has a moral obligation of ensuring this right is upheld, especially since it is basically an education association. Hence, parents literally own the schools and should choose according to their preference in what is known as “libertarianism”.
Major Ethical Challenges and Conflicts of Responsibility
Ethical behavior, within an organization culture can only be instilled through internal and external controls. Internal controls are achieved by promoting ethical conduct through encouraging professional development within the members. It is important for all members of an organization to be informed of the new ways of being ethic, and also teaching them to identify what is right from wrong. Professional development is one way of achieving this outcome since members of the organization will improve their skills as well the general knowledge of ethics. External control focuses on policies and laws. These formed policies and laws show the members of an organization what is right and expected of them, and what is wrong that they should avoid at all costs. If an organization can achieve a balance of these two controls, then a positive outcome should be expected. It is important to first look at the individuals involved as well as the organization as a whole. This consideration defines the policies formed within an organization. Policies are basically a definition of what one can do and cannot do. Hence, the leaders of the organization should be elected to create and uphold these policies (Prothero, 2014). This means that they should be individuals who can model the appropriate behaviors in members. The organizational culture affects the policy making process, and at times it can be more effective than the internal and external controls, as well as the organization’s accountability structure. Hence, the leader is the most influential individual and has the capability of impacting the culture, which is very powerful on its own and can instill ethical behavior amongst members (Shober, Manna & Witte, 2006).
Therefore, this organization is greatly challenged by the fact that its leaders are not actually the most appropriate individuals for the position. They are confused about what their true responsibility to the organization is all about. This is why the union can presently be misinterpreted for a political organization. The leaders are misdirecting the members, forcefully expecting money from them, but still the actions are not for the benefits of all involved. Another major ethical challenge is that the organization has lost focus of what is ethical and unethical. Instead of advocating for things that will benefit the children, avoid their discrimination, and ensure teachers are providing quality education; the union is focused on prohibiting anything that will not benefit teachers positively. As a matter of fact, they are against acts that are supposed to promote education for children and improve quality. Since the union is supposed to promote such acts, it is clear that they are being unethical in their actions.
Summary of Strategies Used by NEA to Maintain Responsible Conduct
This organization uses many strategies to maintain responsible conduct, despite the fact that it has many ethical and social justice issues. First, it has leaders to take control of the various activities involved within the organization. Without leaders, members of an organization would not be capable of staying together especially since they would be disagreeing, there would be no one to have the final say and so on (NEA, 2011). Thus, the organization has appointed different leaders for all sections to ensure that everything runs smoothly. These leaders are also supposed to lead others in the right way. Second, this organization has for long depended on research projects to support its advocacy. If it needs to oppose or support a certain act, it conducts research and uses the results as presentation to the government, showing why they should or should not implement the change given (NEA, 2011). This makes their argument to be stronger as it proves that they are using the right path by being ethical and thus doing the right thing for all involved.
Recommendations for Addressing the Issue
The National Education Association is opposing educational reform, a factor that is greatly affecting many children in many ways. First, exposure to high quality schools is being limited since their action is advocating for the continued mediocre schools. Therefore, children will never get the opportunity of enjoying high quality education in case their opposition succeeds. Their opposition also discourages more children to get enrolled in schools, therefore it also impacts the education of many more. The reason for this negative action by the NEA is that most of its members are unaware of what is going on and they also do not really know the truth behind the existence of this organization. Therefore, my first recommendation is that the Department of Education should make great effort in designing programs that will enlighten the members of the National Education Association (Wong, Wong & Ngo, 2012). This effort should be designed in a similar way to the No Child Left Behind, by applying the Theory of Action (Bland, 2014). This recommendation is very important as everything will change about the organization once the members have a clear idea of what they are supporting. Currently, only a few members know what the organization leaders have been trying to do. The second recommendation is that NEA should finally own up and start being transparent with its data. By hiding things from the people, the organization is not helping the trust situation that it has with the public. This will be a step towards curbing the claims that members are being misled. Transparency is the first step towards accepting mistakes and fixing the situation. This is because the organization’s leaders will not be tempted to act unethically as they will know that eventually they will have to answer for their mistakes.
Third, the NEA leaders should start being accountable for the organizations actions, and ensuring that teachers have a choice of whether they want to become members or not. By being accountable, leaders will know that any negative impressions given by the organization will be linked to them. Therefore, they will be more careful in preparing their activities, and will not only focus on selfish topics that are aimed towards benefiting them solely. Every individual has a freedom of choice, including teachers. Hence, it is immoral to force teachers to join the union just for the sake of getting finances from them. Fourth, school board members and parents should also get involved with the National Education Association. Without them, schools would be nowhere today, thus it shows they have power over the NEA. Teachers may always be tempted to favor their section only, which is why it is always important to have another group who will be representing the children.
If teachers had a clear view of the benefits they could receive as a result of merit pay, the importance of the data that encouraged the development of the NCLB, the many possibilities of charter schools, and also the reasons why NEA is opposing these changes, then the educational reform would start internally (Hoff, 2008). The recommendations above are all targeting the improvement of knowledge that many people have about the NEA. Therefore, once implemented, they are all expected to be effective in handling the ethical and social justice issues experienced by the National Education Association.
Factors Affecting the Implementation of the Recommendations mentioned
Just as with many business proposals, these recommendations will also require a lot of financing. This is why it may be difficult for the implementation of the first recommendation by the Department of Education. Currently, the organization is already supporting many people financially and politically, therefore it will be very complicated for it to still be able to find leaders who can develop a similar effort (NEA, 2011). As a result of a poor economy, the department may be forced to focus on issues that are more urgent and give this recommendation lesser priority. Another factor is how the NEA is already a powerhouse; hence, it means that the implementation of these recommendations may be hindered at various points, especially since they are supposed to create changes. Therefore, it will be very important for these reformers to be courageous; otherwise they will not make it. Parental attitudes may also threaten the implementation of the recommendation unless they are encouraged to meaningfully take part in the education of their children.
Outcomes
If these recommendations were implemented, the teachers will be given the power to make reformations on their own. As a result of this power, they will feel encouraged to be better professionals as they will hope for better payments and other benefits. This step, in turn, will also influence the quality of education offered in schools and students will feel more comfortable in the environment. Teachers will also gain relief after they understand that the NCLB is indeed a positive act, and it is not the government’s way of going against them as they had been initially made to believe. After their implementation, professional development will turn out to be a positive event and not how it previously was a negative event. Student learning will also be increased for the diverse students, as these implementations will encourage the development of many more charter schools.
NEA’s Opposition to Education Reform Threatens Equality, Liberty, and Justice
Justice is related to the actions of an individual as well as their moral implications. Hence, the decisive factor here is to even out the level of welfare to all individuals involved (Wong, Wong & Ngo, 2012). Distributive justice refers to how even the outcomes are while considering the organizational decisions and processes. Some individuals see that expectations and perceptions of fairness are parallel to the outcomes. This justice can be noted in the No Child Left Behind educational improvement act. It comes as a result of the actions of individual, that are designed to equalize the learning field and hence lead to the wellbeing of students. This action, however, is being threatened by the NEA.
Liberty is often considered to be a state of freedom, whereby one has the ability to act and think independently, as well as the capability of coming and leaving at one’s pleasure. It can also be considered as freedom to leave an unjust union, and be able to participate in more privileged activities without being intruded. The NEA is also opposing this by forcefully expecting teachers to become members of the organization.
Political liberalism is basically an idea that humans are indeed good and have the capability of governing themselves, however they still pick a government to lead them. This connection between liberty and political liberalism supports freedom of an individual, most specifically the individual liberty, human rights and many others. Political liberals are usually more focused on autonomy, equality, and neutrality. Therefore, all these should be used together to end up with an effective union.
Conclusion
The National Education Association has indeed deferred from its main purpose of existence. Its focus currently is very different from what it used to focus on many years ago. The people’s reaction to it previously and currently is also very different. Today, many people have lost hope in this organization as they now feel like it is a political organization and not the voluntary organization aimed towards fighting for the human rights of the members of the society. This organization has an opportunity of once again becoming what the people need. All it needs to do is to change its course, and finally focus on its purpose for existence. This should involve fighting for the rights of children to access education, fight for a high quality education system, and also to fight for the teachers so they can receive better salaries in future.
References
Antonucci, M. (2010). The long reach of teachers unions, using money to win friends influence policy. Education Next,10(4), Retrieved fromhttp://educationnext.org/the- long-reach-of-teachers-unions/
Bland, A. (2014). No Child Left Behind: Why Race based Achievement Goals Violate The Equal Protection Clause. Berkeley La Raza Law Journal, 2459-80.
Hoff, D. J. (2008). Obama Slips Merit Pay Into Larger Plan on Schools. Education Week, 28(5), 23-25.
Prothero, A. (2014). In Calif. and Elsewhere, Unions Seek Inroads Into Charter Schools. Education Week, 34(3), 6.
Shober, A. F., Manna, P., & Witte, J. F. (2006). Flexibility Meets Accountability: State Charter School Laws and Their Influence on the Formation of Charter Schools in the United States. Policy Studies Journal, 34(4), 563-587. doi:10.1111/j.1541-0072.2006.00191.x
Smyth, T. (2008). Who Is No Child Left Behind Leaving Behind?. Clearing House, 81(3), 133-137.
Wong, Y., Wong, C., & Ngo, H. (2012). The effects of trust in organisation and perceived organisational support on organisational citizenship behaviour: a test of three competing models. International Journal Of Human Resource Management, 23(2), 278-293. doi:10.1080/09585192.2011.610966
Wright, R. E. (2003). Difficulties in Marketing the Concept of Merit Pay for Primary and Secondary Teachers. Research For Educational Reform, 8(3), 38-45.
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Crisis in a business organisation; Brookside Dairy Company
Crisis in a business organisation; Brookside Dairy Company
Order Instructions:
Organizational leaders often see crisis as a uniformly negative event that should be avoided at all costs. They often focus crisis management efforts on trying to predict every negative situation that could possibly occur and developing a plan to avoid them. Such an approach is impractical according to researchers Antonacopoulou and Sheafer (2011) because unexpected crises are an inevitable part of business. Moreover, they propose “a dynamic view of learning and crisis as central to management and organization practices” (p. 4). Crises, they say, not only happen during large-scale disasters but also occur on a smaller scale each time someone is pressured to make a decision for which prior solutions are inadequate. These situations force people to “make new connections” among existing knowledge to arrive at novel solutions. Research such as this suggests that crises can be learning opportunities.
To prepare, identify a crisis the organization that you chose for your SSP (Brookside Dairy Company ) has faced in the past, a crisis that it is currently facing (Brookside Dairy Company ), or a crisis that a competitor in that industry has faced that your selected organization may face in the future (Brookside Dairy Company ).
By Day 3 of Week 7, post a two page explanation of the crisis that you selected and a crisis management response recommendation.(Brookside Dairy Company ) Include an analysis of the ethical implications of that recommendation. Reference at least one scholarly peer-reviewed resource in your recommendation.
*******please take note all these questions and requirement has to be answered on Brookside Dairy Company . That is the company I chose to do my SSP on. Please follow instructions carefully !!!
SAMPLE ANSWER
Business
Crises are inevitable in organizations, even though many managers see them as uniformly negative events. Focus should not be on management of these crises, but should be used to develop a suitable plan to avoid them. The author uses Brookside Dairy Company as a case study in deliberating on aspects concerning crisis, recommends a crisis management response, and includes an analysis of ethical implications of the recommendation.
Brookside Dairy Company is one of the major dairy producing companies in East Africa with operations in Kenya, Uganda, and Tanzania. It deals in fresh milk as well as dairy products; some exported to other countries such as Rwanda, Egypt, Middle East, Burundi and Indian Ocean islands (Brookside Dairy Limited, 2014). The company’s competitors have faced a number of crises that Brookside Dairy Company should develop plans to avoid experiencing the same in future. One of the crises is employee go-slows because of low salaries that jeopardizes the operations of the company.
Employees have a right to better working environment and to engage in go-slows and strikes if their rights are beached. The management, on the other hand, has the responsibility of ensuring that their employees work in a conducive environment as this enhances job satisfaction translating into higher productivity. Therefore, many entities in Milk production have faced such crisis that has had negative impacts on their operations and profitability. Advance planning on how to manage such crises helps to avoid the consequences that negatively impacts on an entity. A lot of time is normally wasted during such periods that could have otherwise put into valuable use.
Understanding appropriate crisis management strategies contributes to successful management of a crisis. The appropriate crisis management recommendation to handle such a crisis is to engage in effective communication (Gupta, 2011). A communication plan is required to allow the management of the company and the leadership of employees to come to a consensus. Through communication, the two parties will create an understanding and will forge an appropriate way of solving their issues. The company is required to appreciate the contribution of their workers and ensure that it honors its promises on salary increments and on working conditions of workers. Similarly, the leadership of employees should also allow negotiation and provide appropriate direction to their fellow workers. These steps will help to avoid go-slows and, therefore, the operations of the company with continue normally without having to jeopardize the company profitability.
A crisis management option should also consider its ethical implications to the various stakeholders. The recommend response has ethical implications as it promotes or exemplifies care. By engaging all the stakeholders in the communication process to secure, a tangible solution is an indication of fairness and justice to all the parties (Tase, 2012). Employees have a right to ask for better pay and working terms. Likewise, the organization’s leadership has a right to be listened to and respected by employers. Therefore, through this relationship and open communications, both parties will be satisfied and will remain committed to the achievement of the entities goals and objectives (Veil, 2011). Workers through this agreement will not consider going on a go-slow hence, the company will not have to incur huge losses. The workers plights and complaints will also be considered in a better way helping reach an amicable solution.
Therefore, it is apparent that crisis is inevitable. This crisis may develop over duration of time or may arise instantly affecting the operations of an entity. Managers should, therefore, learn from crises that face their counterparts to be in a potion to develop appropriate strategies to counter such crisis when they happen in their entities. Crisis therefore, should be an opportunity to learn and to gain more experience on better preventive measures. Any decisions taken should consider ethical consequences to ensure that conflicts of interest do not happen.
Evidence based practice paper: Hand Hygiene in Healthcare setting
Order Instructions:
Describe a Clinical Problem that you see or have seen in practice. You will then revise or develop a policy, protocol, algorithm, or standardized guideline to be used in your practice site that is based on current research evidence. You are proposing the implementation of an intervention that is supported by research; thus you are proposing an evidence-based practice (EBP) project. You are not proposing a
study to be conducted in your agency.
Your final paper should be no more than 10 pages but your protocol, policy, or algorithm, and references for your project can be extra pages. This assignment is worth 100 points
Identify an area of interest: Is there a better way of doing something? Would another intervention based on research be more effective and improve patient outcomes? Is a policy, protocol, or algorithm in your agency out of date and in need of revision based on current research?
2. Provide some information (incidence of problem, morbidity and mortality rates, cost, etc.) from the healthcare literature and your agency that supports the fact that this is a patient care problem.
3. Review recent research and practice literature and select a specific intervention that might
address this patient care issue. The research-based intervention may be implemented in the form of a policy, protocol, algorithm, or standardized guideline that you could use to change patient care.
4. Identify what evidence-based intervention exists to improve current care in terms of patient, provider, or healthcare agency outcomes? Try to identify something for which you really
want an answer. You might get ideas from your unit nursing leader, other nurses, or patients
and families. Search current research journals online for interventions that have been studied.
5. Review a variety of evidence-based practice (EBP) Websites such as:
Professional Organization Websites Evidence-Based Guidelines
See Chapter 19 in Grove, Burns, and Gray (2013) textbook for more details on conducting EBP Projects and EBP websites.
6. Summarize what is known and not known about the problem area selected.
7. Revise or develop a policy, protocol, algorithm, or standardized guideline to be used in your practice site.
8. Provide a copy of the policy, protocol, algorithm, or standardized guideline with its references.
9. The steps of the protocol, policy, algorithm, or standardized guideline must be documented with current studies.
10. If a previous agency protocol or policy is revised, specify the changes made in the document.
11. Provide a reference list for your paper.
12. The references should include 7-10 quality research sources that support the intervention you have selected to implement in your practice site.
Grading Rubric
Introduction
Rubric
(0 – 10 Points)
Identifies problem in practice and the intervention to be used to address problem. Identifies the audience who will use the protocol, algorithm, or policy revised or developed.
Documents introduction.
Review of sources: What is known
(0 – 30 Points)
Summarizes or synthesizes current research knowledge that identifies what is known about the selected intervention.
Summary must be documented with studies from published sources.
Summary provides the knowledge base or research evidence for making a change in practice.
Review of sources: What is not known
(0 – 15 Points)
Summarizes or synthesizes what is not known in the area of the selected intervention.
Summary must be documented.
Section identifies the areas for further research.
Protocol, Algorithm, Policy, or Standardized
Guideline for Evidence-Based Project
(0 – 20 Points)
Provide a copy of the documented protocol, algorithm, policy, or standardized guideline. The steps of the protocol, algorithm, or policy are documented with current research sources.
Discuss your development of your protocol, algorithm, policy, or standardized guideline. If revised from previous agency protocol, identify the changes made.
(0 – 10 Points)
Indicate whether protocol or algorithm was developed; revised from an agency document; or obtained from a publication or website.
If based on existing document, include a copy of this document.
Briefly identifies any revisions you might have made to the existing document.
Format and Writing style is clear, complete, and concise. No grammar, sentence structure, or spelling errors. References APA (2010) Format. Limit the paper to 10 pages
(0 – 15 Points) The references need to include 7-10 published research sources. All sections of the paper must be documented with research sources. Include headings based on the paper guidelines.
Total Points Possible: 100
SAMPLE ANSWER
Evidence based practice paper: Hand Hygiene in Healthcare setting
Hand hygiene (HH) is known to prevent cross-infection in health care organizations, but there is poor adherence of health care workers to hand hygiene guidelines. Timely, easy access to both skin protection and hand hygiene is essential for satisfactory hand hygiene behavior. The use of alcohol-based hand rubs is necessary given that they are less irritating, they act faster, and require less time than traditional hand washing, and they also contribute to sustained improvement in compliance related to reduced rates of infection (Pittet, 2011). It is disquieting that the hospitalization of a patient may result in Hospital Acquired Infection (HAI), also known as nosocomial infection, and that poor hand hygiene is considered as a contributory factor. This paper provides an exhaustive description of hand hygiene; a Clinical Problem that I have actually seen in practice. Moreover, a standardized guideline is developed in this paper that would be used in my practice site and this standardized guideline is based on current literature evidence. In essence, I am proposing the implementation of an intervention that is supported by research; hence I am proposing an evidence-based practice (EBP) project.
The Clinical Problem of Hand Hygiene in Healthcare setting
Hand hygiene (HH) is the most effective and simplest measure for the prevention of nosocomial infections. In spite of advances in infection control as well as hospital epidemiology, the adherence of healthcare workers (HCWs) to the recommended HH practices is unacceptably low and patients remain susceptible to unintentional harm in health care settings (Maxfield & Dull, 2011). It is of note that the average adherence to HH recommendations varies amongst professional categories of HCWs, between hospital wards, according to working conditions, and according to the definitions utilized in various studies. In most instances, compliance to HH practices by HCWs is estimated as less than 50% (Boyce, 2014). In the United States, poor adherence has led to high mortality and morbidity considering that there are between 1.7 million and 2 million persons who get Hospital Acquired Infections every year, and 88,000 to 99,000 deaths are attributed to Hospital Acquired Infections every year (Al-Busaidi, 2013). Moreover, Hospital Acquired Infection affects almost 10 percent of hospitalized patients and it presents great challenges in hospitals. As a result, yearly medical expenditures have risen to roughly $4.5 billion in the United States (Al-Busaidi, 2013).
The practice of Hand Hygiene amongst health care workers is regarded as the single most clinical and cost effective measure for preventing nosocomial infection, a view that is recognized all over the world (Canham, 2011). The World Health Organization strongly stresses the vital need for HH during health care delivery in order to avoid possible infection as well as the consequent health problems; hence, the WHO’s Clean Care is Safe Care initiative launched in the year 2005. It is of note that this initiative provides new guidelines on HH training, observation, as well as performance reporting in health care settings (Kukanich et al., 2013).
The hands of nurses come in close contact with patients and they are usually contaminated through patient care, for instance while touching surfaces, materials or devices that are contaminated, or auscultation and palpation. As such, HH is seen as a cheap, vital, and most effective way to prevent cross infection (Cambell, 2010). This method is essentially aimed at saving lives and provides a safe treatment atmosphere for every health care worker and patient, irrespective of the setting. Bischoff (2000) stated that HH has to be considered after contact with high risk, infectious patients, and with contaminated materials or devices, as well as prior to invasive procedures. In essence, HH has to be advocated before a HCW begins work, at the end of her work, and after visiting the toilet/rest room. Even when nursing staffs spend a longer duration of time on HH, there hand hygiene technique is usually poor relative to other health care workers in terms of leaving large areas of the hand unwashed properly, including between fingers, nail beds, thumbs, as well as wrists (Maxfield & Dull, 2011).
Hand hygiene, in essence, is not just the responsibility of the nurses. Hand hygiene is a shared responsibility between patients, main leaders of the hospital, hospital administration, and other stakeholders. Boyce (2014) observed that patient involvement generally increases adherence to HH practice by 50 percent if, for instance, a straightforward question is asked of the HCW, like: have you washed your hands? Most patients think that asking health care workers to clean their hands before health care delivery is a disloyalty of trust. Moreover, some of them actually believe that they could be labeled as a troublemaker; hence, they choose not to ask. Patients typically feel reassured if they observe health care workers practice effective hand hygiene within the health care setting (Al-Busaidi, 2013).
Barriers to Hand Hygiene Practice in Health Care Settings
A lot of factors lie behind poor HH compliance amongst health care workers. Nursing staff members are ethically and professionally responsible for their actions. Nonetheless, some nursing staffs display low compliance since they perceive hand hygiene as not their problem; that it is instead something to do with the staffs of infection control. Moreover, nursing staffs usually fail to practice HH since they are very busy and they think that hand hygiene will take up their precious time (Canham, 2011). Additionally, they usually believe that gloves can be utilized as an alternative to HH, and this is a major misconception that contributes to poor adherence. Nurses often have the tendency of removing gloves without washing their hands. They also tend to use the gloves in delivering intended care to many patients. Even when nurses remove their gloves, just 20 percent of them actually wash their hands (Pittet, 2011).
Furthermore, nursing staff member usually avoid HH practice because they have the fear that skin problems for instance dermatitis might develop, particularly when alcohol hand-rubs are used in the hand hygiene practice – another misconception. They think that skin irritation occurs as a result of frequent HH practice (Whitby, 2006). Moreover, limited time, lack of organizational pledge to proper HH practice, increased workloads, lack of motivation, lack of role models amongst seniors or colleagues, under-staffing, and disagreement with protocols and guidelines all contribute to poor adherence to hand hygiene and infection control measures in health care settings. Maxfield and Dull (2011) observed that the dearth of hand hygiene facilities and products, for instance hand paper towels, non-antiseptic and antiseptic soaps, sinks, alcohol hand-rubs, and running water can also contribute to bad hand hygiene practice.
Another noteworthy barrier is a lack of awareness and scientific knowledge with regard to hand hygiene. Bischoff (2000) stated that the lack of appropriate infection control in training programs, where students watch their colleagues with patients, might actually result in bad HH practice. Otto and French (2009) in their study learned that the cultures and attitudes of nurses at work have a significant influence in clinical development of students, and for the students to be accepted in that culture, they have a tendency to follow their mentors and other health care workers. A case in point is that for a student to be perceived as being an effective team member, she/he tends to perform hand hygiene poorly and improperly, since this student wants to appear as busy as her mentors and believes that she does not have enough time to wash her hands (Al-Busaidi, 2013).
The behavior and attitudes of HCWs toward HH practice is an intricate issue that involves the perception of its efficacy, existing barriers, as well as beliefs and values of staffs. To attain high rates of compliance with hand hygiene practice, Otto and French (2009) suggested that those who default have to be disciplined as if they have breached hospital policy, and this should start with personal counseling to verbal warning, and at last to a written warning placed in the files of the defaulters.
Effective Hand Hygiene
Effective HH basically involves removing the visible soiling as well as the reduction of microbial colonization of the skin. The hands of HCWs could be contaminated by 2 sorts of pathogens: (i) resident – colonizing or normal – microorganisms, and (ii) transient – contaminating – microorganisms. Resident flora microorganisms are known to colonize the deeper layers of the skin, and unlike transient flora, they are not easy to remove mechanically; that is, through washing hands (Smith & Lokhorst, 2009). Luckily though, resident flora is less aggressive compared to transient flora, and is less likely to lead to serious infection. Examples of resident flora include negative staphylococci and Corynebacteria. It is of note that these bacteria are inclined to grow within the hair follicles and remain moderately dormant over time (Smith & Lokhorst, 2009).
Conversely, transient flora colonize the superficial layers of the skin for a short period of time. The nurses’ hands are frequently contaminated with transient flora through direct contact during every day patient care activities, equipment or environments. Nonetheless, transient flora can be removed easily through the use of mechanical methods, for instance friction in hand washing. Examples of transient flora include Candida species and Staphylococcus aurous. Transient flora are able to induce nosocomial infection amongst health care workers and patients (Al-Busaidi, 2013). Considering this information as regards resident and transient bacteria, effective hand hygiene practice either with the use of alcohol-based hand-rub or hand washing using antimicrobial soap, is clearly the way to reduce the risk of cross infection.
Research-Based Intervention in the form of a Standardized Guideline
Promotion of HH practices in health care settings is a significant challenge for infection control experts. Lectures and workshops, distribution of information flyers, performance feedback on adherence rates, and in-service education have all been linked to transient improvement. There is really not a single intervention that has repeatedly improved adherence to HH practices (Smith & Lokhorst, 2009). Given that nursing staff members are present twenty-four hours a day, seven days a week within the health care setting, it is of major importance to stick to HH standardized guideline and maintain patient safety. The following guideline should be followed by health care facilities.
Encourage effective hand washing
Effective hand washing, according to Pittet (2011), is the application of antimicrobial/antiseptic or non-antimicrobial/plain soap onto wet hands. The individual should then rub together both hands vigorously to form lather, and should cover base of the fingers, tops of the hands, all the surface of the palms, fingernails, wrists, thumbs, back of the fingers, and between fingers for a 60 seconds. The health care worker should ensure that his/her fingernails are short. Boyce (2014) reported that artificial fingernails are possible traps for bacteria and thus have to be avoided. Although chipped nail polish has the capacity of harboring bacteria, new nail polish on natural nails in fact does not worsen the microbial load. It is of note that wearing jewellery, for instance hand watches or rings, may actually bring about bacterial colonization on the skin beneath them. After the HCW has soaped and rubbed, she should rinse her hands thoroughly to remove all the lather on the hands. Hot water should not be used in rinsing given that it may lead to dryness of the skin (Al-Busaidi, 2013).
Hand drying is also of major importance in the prevention of cross infection in the health care setting since microorganisms are known to thrive in damp environments. Hand drying should be done before the HCW wears her gloves, as trapped moisture in the gloves may lead to irritation of the skin and increase the harboring of microorganisms (Whitby, 2006). Paper towels are very efficient in drying hands and the friction created whenever they are used actually improves the removal of microorganisms from the skin. The HCW must not touch the tap again after she has just washed her hands; she should use a paper towel in turning the water off. Even though hand driers are just as good as hand towels, paper disposable hand towels are generally more effective and are quicker. In essence, the friction that is produced through hand rubbing with soap vigorously and then hand drying using paper towels actually removes all the dirt as well as any loosely adherent flora; that is, small portion of resident flora and nearly all transient flora from hands (Smith & Lokhorst, 2009).
Encourage the use of alcohol hand-rub
There is sufficient evidence to recommend the alcohol hand-rub owing to its cost effectiveness and clinical benefits. Pittet (2011) pointed out that the likelihood of hand washing to wash away the skin’s fats and oils that are vital for healthy skin is less with the usage of hand-rub. Simply put, alcohol hand-rub will redistribute the lipids in the layers of the skin. In addition, alcohol hand-rub can dispense with paper towels. In his study, Cambell (2010) found that alcohol hand-rub actually consists of several emollients that are better tolerated by health care workers compared to hand washing. Cambell (2010) also found that quite a few factors including consistency, odor, and color of alcohol hand-rub products can influence health care workers’ acceptance of this product. Alcohol hand-rub dispensers could be positioned readily and accessed easily: at the bedside of patients, outside and inside of the rooms of patients, in waiting areas, next to computers, and even inside the nursing stations (Kukanich et el., 2013).
Effective usage of alcohol hand-rub basically implies that health care workers have to strictly comply with the manufacturer’s instructions, particularly with regard to the quantity used as well as the time required to completely fade away from the hands. In essence, the availability of alcohol hand-rub products at the point of care has to be supplemented by the availability of gloves in suitable sizes. From his study, Bischoff (2000) observed that hospitals that made clean gloves and alcohol-based hand rub readily available to HCWs saw improved compliance with hand hygiene.
Clarify misconceptions about the usage of gloves
To improve healthcare workers compliance with HH practice, it is of major importance to take into account the hindering factors and then turn them into factors that enhance compliance. The misconceptions of nurses regarding the use of gloves and skin complications should be clarified so as to attain a better compliance with HH practice. In essence, failure to remove gloves following contact with patient or between clean and dirty body site care for the same patient actually amounts to poor adherence to hand hygiene recommendations (Boyce, 2014). The nursing staffs need to be informed that it is ineffective to wash and reuse gloves between patient contact. Disinfection or hand washing has to be strongly encouraged following removal of gloves (Canham, 2011).
Provide Training and Education on Hand Hygiene
Proper education as well as follow-up training is key to identify situations in which HH is reasonable. Important educational materials that the hospital should use include the following: computer-assisted, interactive learning that is made available to the clinicians through the hospital’s intranet; and PowerPoint presentations and videotapes that illustrate the significance of good HH techniques in hospitals and other health care facilities. Hospitals should conduct educational programmes for employees that comprise instructions for appropriate method when using an alcohol-based hand-rub, or washing hands using water and soap. The hospital should make sure that health care workers comprehend the underlying principle for gloves and hand hygiene and can follow the best practices and enhance patient outcomes (Pittet, 2011).
Place promotional materials in noticeable areas
In essence, hand hygiene promotion posters should be placed in locations that are highly visible throughout the healthcare facility and a multi-modal campaign for improving performance should be initiated. Whitby (2006) pointed out that promotional material, for instance posters, could be placed in noticeable areas of the health care facility and they will be aimed at reminding patients, health care worker, as well as visitors about the significance of HH practice. In addition, the hospital can also place videos on the wards in order to show patients the importance of HH in the prevention of cross infection and to remind or ask health care workers to practice HH before health care delivery. In their study, Kukanich (2013) found that placing appropriate HH technique illustrations close to alcohol hand-rub dispensers or above sinks helped in improving compliance to hand hygiene. Moreover, Kukanich (2013) found that posters with pictures of renowned hospital physicians/personnel recommending hand hygiene also helped to improve compliance with hand hygiene in the health care facility. To motivate computer user to comply with hand hygiene practice, Smith and Lokhorst (2009) pointed out that messages on the subject of hand hygiene practice can be set on computer screensavers.
Hand Hygiene products should be always available, and in right places
The ward or unit manager should ensure that hand hygiene products are at all times available, and are actually in the right places. Some of these places include offices, nursing station, as well as outside and inside of all patient rooms. Studies have revealed that compliance by HCWs was substantially greater when alcohol-based rub dispensers were placed adjacent to the bed of patients compared to when they was just a single dispenser for every 4 beds (Al Busaidi, 2013). Moreover, in critical care settings, studies have indicated that the availability of alcohol-based hand-rub at the point of care actually minimized the time constraint related to HH during patient care and it predicted better adherence to HH practice. Pittet (2011) in a study of hand hygiene amongst doctors, learned that easy access to an alcohol-based hand rub was in fact an independent predictor of improved compliance to HH practice.
Recognize clinicians with good hand hygiene practice and create a culture of proper hand hygiene
It is of major importance for the health care organization to recognize nursing staff members with proper hand hygiene. This can be done, for instance, though announcement in the hospital’s newsletter. This will serve as a vital accolade that can actually encourage other nurses and health care workers to do likewise. The hospital should also create a culture that encourages staff members to remind each other as regards proper hand hygiene (Otto & French, 2009). In their study, Cambell (2010) found that when health care workers reminded each other and other health care workers to practice hand hygiene, there was a considerable increase in compliance to hand hygiene practice at the health care facility. All in all, the hospital should monitor compliance by HCWs with the recommended indications for HH, including real-time feedback to staff members.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the practice of Hand Hygiene amongst health care workers is regarded as the single most clinical and cost effective measure for preventing nosocomial infection. However, notwithstanding advances in infection control as well as hospital epidemiology, the compliance of clinicians with the recommended hand hygiene practices is unacceptably low and patients are very susceptible to inadvertent harm in health care settings. Hand hygiene is fundamentally aimed at saving lives and to provide a safe treatment atmosphere for every health care worker and patient, no matter the setting. In America, improper compliance with hand hygiene practices has led to high mortality and morbidity bearing in mind that there are more than 1.7 million persons who catch HAI every year, and over 90,000 deaths are attributed to HAI every year. Several factors actually contribute to poor hand hygiene compliance amongst clinicians. These include limited time, lack of organizational pledge to proper HH practice, increased workloads, lack of motivation, lack of role models, and under-staffing.
The proposed intervention as described in the guideline entails the following: making hand hygiene products always available and in the right places such as in nurse stations and at patient bedsides; and to recognize clinicians with effective hand hygiene practice and creating a culture of proper hand hygiene in the hospital. Moreover, the hospital should place promotional materials in noticeable areas, and provide education and training programs on the significance of proper and hand hygiene and how to actually practice effective hand hygiene.
References
Al-Busaidi, S. (2013). Healthcare Workers and Hand Hygiene Practice: A Literature Review. Diffusion, 6(1): 81-89
Bischoff, W. E. (2000). Handwashing compliance by health care workers: the impact of introducing an accessible, alcohol-based hand antiseptic. Arch Intern Med. 160(7):1017-21
Boyce, J. M. (2014). Preventing Infections: It’s in Your Hands. Medscape Infectious Disease.
Cambell, R. (2010). Hand-washing compliance goes from 33% to 95% steering team of key players drives process, Healthcare Benchmarks and Quality Improvement 17:1, 5-6.
Canham, L. (2011). The first step in infection control is hand hygiene, The Dental Assistant, 42-46.
Kukanich, K. S., Kaur, R., Freeman, L. C., & Powell, D. A. (2013). Original Research: Evaluation of a Hand Hygiene Campaign in Outpatient Health Care Clinics. American Journal of Nursing, 113(3):36-42
Maxfield, D. & Dull, D. (2011). Influencing hand hygiene at spectrum health, Physician Executive Journal 37:3, 30-34.
Otto, M. & French, R. (2009). Hand hygiene compliance among healthcare staff and student nurses in a mental health setting, Mental Health Nursing 30, 702-704.
Pittet, D. (2011). Improving Adherence to Hand Hygiene Practice: A Multidisciplinary Approach. Emerging Infection Disease Journal, 7(2): 32-8
Smith, J.M. & Lokhorst, D.B. (2009). Infection control: can nurses improve hand hygiene practice?, Journal of Undergraduate Nursing Scholarship 11:1, 1-6.
Whitby M. (2006). Why healthcare workers don’t wash their hands: a behavioral explanation Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol; 27(5):484-92.
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