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Marketing audit of Nike Inc. Assignment

Marketing audit of Nike Inc.
Marketing audit of Nike Inc.

Marketing audit of Nike Inc.

Order Instructions:

Just wanted to mentioned that this paper is the continuation of 111486, it will be critical to take into account that this paper will continue from that paper , the writer must reread that paper to be able to write this paper as you will realized below that it requires some information from the previous paper on this topic. It is important that the writer follow the instructions as indicated by using each of the 6 titles as sub headings.

• Marketing Audit
Conduct an interview with the individual you identified in your chosen organization for the purpose of this week’s assignment. She or he should be an individual who understands the organization’s overall strategic use of marketing activities to achieve competitive advantage in the marketplace and is willing to meet with you to discuss these initiatives, but need not be a high-level executive. Complete the task environment audit from information gathered in your interview.

• Note: If this is the only opportunity you will have to meet with this individual, then you should also include the topics presented in Week 3 during your interview. You will not need to turn in that written portion until the end of Week 3, but you should take advantage of the time you spend in your interview to gather all necessary information. Be sure to ask the individual at the conclusion of your interview if you may contact her or him by e-mail if you have follow-up questions.

Task Environment Audit

Each of the following main areas needs to be addressed as part of this audit, but the questions listed are only guidelines as to the type of information that you are interested in gathering. It is important to cover each particular topic, but in a way that is most meaningful for the organization that you have selected. Keep in mind the role of the marketing information system as it relates to record tracking, marketing intelligence, data management, etc. If the company does not utilize a MIS, find out how they are tracking information.

1. Markets
• What is happening to market size, growth, and profits?
2. Customers
• What are the customer segments?
• How do customers rate the company and its competitors on reputation, product quality, and price?
• How do different customer segments make their buying decisions?
3. Competitors
• Who are the major competitors?
• What are their objectives, strategies, strengths, weaknesses, and sizes?
4. Distribution and Dealers
• What are the main trade channels for bringing products to customers?
• What are the efficiency levels and growth potentials of the different trade channels?
5. Suppliers
• What is the outlook for the availability of key resources used in production?
• What trends are occurring among suppliers?
6. Facilitators and Marketing Firms
• What is the cost and availability outlook for transportation services, warehousing facilities, and financial resources?
• How effective are the company’s advertising agencies and marketing research firms?
Write a summary (2–3 pages) of your findings and analysis, using each numbered item as a heading for your paper. You should also review the scholarly literature so that you are able to include a description of the significance of the marketing audit in your completed Praxis Paper. You may also wish to review the scholarly literature to help you gain insights into any of the major issues you identify for your selected organization.

Resources

• Marketing Management
o Chapter 3, “Collecting Information and Forecasting Demand”

This chapter describes the components of modern marketing information systems (MIS) designed to assist a marketing manager in gathering necessary company information to be used in decision-making. The chapter also discusses the importance of monitoring outside environmental forces that could potentially affect a business.

o Chapter 4, “Conducting Marketing Research

Article
o D’Esopo, M., & Almquist, E. (2007). An approach to mastering the marketing mix. Business Strategy Series, 8(2), 122–131. Retrieved from ProQuest Central database.

In this article the authors describe how structural equation modeling, historical analyses, and in-market experiments can be used to analyze marketing investment patterns.

• Hauser, W. (2007). Marketing analytics: The evolution of marketing research in the twenty-first century. Direct Marketing, 1(1), 38–54. doi:10.1108/17505930710734125

By using advances in technology, such as data mining, and other marketing analytics, the author argues that companies can be much more effective in researching marketing issues and problems.

• Lee, N., & Broderick, A. (2007). The past, present, and future of observational research in marketing. Qualitative Market Research, 10(2), 121–129. doi:10.1108/13522750710740790

This article reviews the history and philosophical debates surrounding the use of observational research in marketing and then describes how technology has allowed observational research to expand beyond just qualitative research.

• Reppel, A., Szmigin, I., & Gruber, T. (2006). The iPod phenomenon: Identifying a market leader’s secrets through qualitative marketing research. Journal of Product & Brand Management, 15(4), 239–249. doi:10.1108/10610420610679601

A problem with online marketing research is how to account for those individuals who do not use the Internet. The authors in this article present a possible solution to this dilemma.

• Schibrowsky, J., Peltier, J., & Nill, A. (2007). The state of Internet marketing research: A review of the literature and future research directions. European Journal of Marketing, 41(7/8), 722–733. doi:10.1108/03090560710752366

After reviewing research studies on Internet marketing research, the authors of this study identify the three most researched areas: consumer behavior, Internet strategy, and Internet communications. They also discuss current trends in online marketing.

• Van de Ven, B. (2008). An ethical framework for the marketing of corporate social responsibility. Journal of Business Ethics, 82(2), 339–352. Retrieved from http://www.springer.com/social+sciences/applied+ethics/journal/10551
SAMPLE ANSWER

Introduction

Nike, Inc is a multinational enterprise that designs and manufactures foot wares, sports apparels, equipments and other accessories. Its major subsidiary is Converse Inc which mostly designs and also distributes casual foot ware, apparels and other accessories. Hurley International designs markets and distributes sports ware for youth and other action sports.

Markets

The major market segments of Nike Inc are mostly located in North America, Western Europe, Japan, China and other emerging markets. The markets have been expanding globally as well as the volume of sales. In 2013, the operations grew by 11% as a result of the popularity of the Nike brand and all the segments except China registered improved sales in the year 2013. In the same year the total sales turnover were $20.117 billion while the assets and liabilities for the same period were $17.584 and 6.428 billion respectively. The total market capitalization for Nike Inc. amounted to $64.75 billion in 2013. The inventory turnover for the same period was 4.3 compared to the previous year which was 4.3. The total revenue for Nike Inc for the year ended 2013 amounted to $27.8 billion

Customers

North American is the leading market segment in terms of sales volume which is followed by the emerging markets and China. The other markets are Western Europe, Japan and Central and Eastern Europe. Most of the segments make majority of their sales through wholesale outlets. Nike Inc products are highly rated both by its direct competitors like puma, Reebok or Adiddas and its customers. The Nike’s + sports band is a type of shoe that is universally rated as one of the best basketball shoes globally. It records or provides the distance covered when running and also the time taken. Nike brand is also common with the youth culture especially the urban fashions.

Competitors

Nike Inc is the leading company in footwear industry and it controls about 47% of the entire footwear industry while Reebok and Adidas control 16% and 6% respectively. Reebok is the second largest manufacturer of footwear in the US after Nike Inc. Adidas market capitalization for the year 2013 was 15.55 billion while its quarterly growth rate is 2% compared to Nike’s 11% for the same period. The total revenue for Adidas for the year ended 2013 amounted to 18.59 billion as compared to Nike’s $27.8 billion for the same period. Nike’s operating margin was 0.13 compared to 0.07 for Adidas for the same period while the earnings per share were 2.93 and 2.2 for Nike and Adidas respectively. The gross operating margin was 0.45 for Nike compared to 0.49 for Adidas. (Nike, 2014)

Adidas is enjoying one of the fastest growths in brand expansion. Their positive attributes have been shielded from any form of bad publicity by the two largest brands that are Nike and Reebok. (Van de Ven, 2008) They adjusted and expanded their manufacturing operation strategies to specialized outsourced services in the early 60’s from Germany to cheaper economies in Asia. But their greatest weakness is that they still do not have an operation code of conduct for outsourced agencies like Nike and Reebok. (Nike Annual Report, 2013)  Adidas is currently considered to the worst employer in footwear industry and it’s largely due to its subcontracted or outsourced work in outsourced factories in Asia. (Van Dusen, 1992)

Distribution and Dealers

The largest earners for Nike Inc are the wholesale distributors which control majority of its sales volume. The inventory turnover or efficiency ratios for the year 2013 was 4.3 compared to the previous year which was 4.3 while the total revenue for the year ended 2013 amounted to $27.8 billion. Nike has outsourced most of its manufacturing business to China and other parts of Asia. Nike Inc also operates thousands of retail outlets in North America and also in other selected countries globally. The future ordering service or program facilitates the retailers to receive advance orders from customers and deliver them when they are due. In 2013, 87% of all the US sales were made under this program. (Kotler & Keller, 2012)

Nike also sells its products through their own Direct to Customer sales operations by utilizing the services of mix independent distributors, sales representatives globally and other licensees. Nike also operates the NIKETOWNS and other outlets for their employee-only stores. (O D’Esopo, & Almquist, 2007)

Suppliers

The suppliers of Nike are mostly located in Asia and other parts of the world. All the footwear for Nike is manufactured outside the US. China and Vietnam manufacture 36% each of Nike’s footwear production while Indonesia and Thailand manufacture 22% and 6% respectively of the total production. (Nike Annual Report, 2013) Other factories that manufacture for their primary markets are located in Argentina, Brazil, Mexico and India. The major suppliers of Nike’s raw materials which are generally canvas, leather, nylon and polyurethane that is used to manufacture the Air-sole components are from China and Thailand. Since the year 1972, Sojitz International Corporation of America and Nissho Iwai Corporation from Japan have handled the bulk of Nike’s raw materials in the form of importing and exporting the requirements of the major production facilities across the world. They also finance the some of the operations and also handle the transporting logistics for the subcontractors.

Facilitators and Marketing Firms

Nike operates its marketing strategy by sponsoring celebrity athletes, college teams and other international professional teams to market its branded apparels and footwear. Nike has an agency known as the Wieden + Kennedy popularly known as the W+K and its responsible for creating its advertisements on most broadcasting stations and features mostly on the New York marathon and other international events. (Lee & Broderick, 2007) Nike has won several accolades in the international scenes due to its effective advertisement including the Emmy advertisement awards and also in the Cannes awards events. Nike pursues an aggressive marketing policy that favors its quality products.  (Hauser, 2007) The core competencies of most footwear industries is to provide quality footwear and they concentrate largely on the research and development of their products while they leave the production and manufacturing operations to outsourced contractors. The main companies form the policies that guide the technological expertise, marketing and distribution networks. These companies gain in the form of reduced capital needs and risks, lower wages and management requirements when they outsource their manufacturing operations.

In conclusion, Nike has adopted several communication strategies to market its products and also to track vital information from the internet and also from other broadcasting stations. (Schibrowsky, Peltier & Nill, 2007) Internet marketing and other email technologies are utilized by Nike to reach potential clients throughout the world. The revenues for Nike Inc have continued to rise despite economic challenges that exist globally

References

Hauser, W. (2007) Marketing analytics: The evolution of marketing research in the twenty-first century, direct Marketing, 1(1), 38–54. Doi: 10.1108/17505930710734125

Kotler, P. & Keller, K. (2012) Marketing management, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall.

Lee, N. & Broderick, A. (2007). The past, present, and future of observational research in marketing. Qualitative Market Research, 10(2), 121–129. Doi: 10.1108/13522750710740790

Nike Annual Report (2013) http://www.annualreportowl.com/Nike/2013/Annual%20Report

Nike. (2014) Strategy, Available at http://www.nikebiz.com/crreport/content/strategy/2-1-1-corporate-responsibility-strategy-overview.php?cat=cr-strategy (Accessed September 4, 2014).

O D’Esopo, M., & Almquist, E. (2007). An approach to mastering the marketing mix. Business Strategy Series, 8(2), 122–131. Retrieved from Proquest Central database.

Schibrowsky, J., Peltier, J., & Nill, A. (2007). The state of Internet marketing research: A review of the literature and future research directions. European Journal of Marketing, 41(7/8), 722–733. Doi: 10.1108/03090560710752366

Van de Ven, B. (2008). An ethical framework for the marketing of corporate social responsibility. Journal of Business Ethics, 82(2), 339–352. Retrieved from http://www.springer.com/social+sciences/applied+ethics/journal/10551

Van Dusen, S. (1992) The Manufacturing Practical

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Marketing Research Methods Assignment Help

Marketing Research Methods
Marketing Research Methods

Marketing Research Methods

Order Instructions:

Marketing Research Methods
A debate exists among marketing researchers over the use of research techniques. Some researchers believe that the only way to understand consumers and products is to utilize qualitative research. Critics of qualitative research, however, disapprove of methods such as marketing focus groups or in-depth interviews. These critics contend that qualitative research is prone to bias because of small sample size and the subjectivity of qualitative approaches. They prefer quantitative research methods. Those researchers preferring quantitative research methods point to the use of large sample sizes and rigorous statistical approaches that exemplify the quantitative method and imply greater generalization. Critics of this research method like to cite the Coca-Cola study.
In 1984, Coca-Cola spent millions of dollars on quantitative market research for their New Coke product. Research results led executives to change the formula to a newer, sweeter formula. Sales of New Coke were very disappointing and post-launch research indicated that consumers disliked the new product. Less than three months after the introduction of New Coke, the Coca-Cola Company announced a return to the old formula leading some to question the merits of quantitative research.
• On the Internet, research the quantitative marketing research undertaken by Coca-Cola. How did they design the research? In hindsight, what were seen as the shortcomings that resulted in such faulty data?
• Do you believe that the best marketing research approach is qualitative or quantitative? Justify your response. Are there particular situations where one approach is clearly preferable?
• What are the advantages and disadvantages of each method as a tool for marketing research? Provide specific examples to illustrate your response.

Resources

• Article
o D’Esopo, M., & Almquist, E. (2007). An approach to mastering the marketing mix. Business Strategy Series, 8(2), 122–131. Retrieved from ProQuest Central database.

In this article the authors describe how structural equation modeling, historical analyses, and in-market experiments can be used to analyze marketing investment patterns.

• Hauser, W. (2007). Marketing analytics: The evolution of marketing research in the twenty-first century. Direct Marketing, 1(1), 38–54. doi:10.1108/17505930710734125

By using advances in technology, such as data mining, and other marketing analytics, the author argues that companies can be much more effective in researching marketing issues and problems.

• Lee, N., & Broderick, A. (2007). The past, present, and future of observational research in marketing. Qualitative Market Research, 10(2), 121–129. doi:10.1108/13522750710740790

This article reviews the history and philosophical debates surrounding the use of observational research in marketing and then describes how technology has allowed observational research to expand beyond just qualitative research.

• Reppel, A., Szmigin, I., & Gruber, T. (2006). The iPod phenomenon: Identifying a market leader’s secrets through qualitative marketing research. Journal of Product & Brand Management, 15(4), 239–249. doi:10.1108/10610420610679601

A problem with online marketing research is how to account for those individuals who do not use the Internet. The authors in this article present a possible solution to this dilemma.

• Schibrowsky, J., Peltier, J., & Nill, A. (2007). The state of Internet marketing research: A review of the literature and future research directions. European Journal of Marketing, 41(7/8), 722–733. doi:10.1108/03090560710752366

After reviewing research studies on Internet marketing research, the authors of this study identify the three most researched areas: consumer behavior, Internet strategy, and Internet communications. They also discuss current trends in online marketing.

• Van de Ven, B. (2008). An ethical framework for the marketing of corporate social responsibility. Journal of Business Ethics, 82(2), 339–352. Retrieved from http://www.springer.com/social+sciences/applied+ethics/journal/10551

SAMPLE ANSWER

Order Instructions:

Marketing Research Methods
A debate exists among marketing researchers over the use of research techniques. Some researchers believe that the only way to understand consumers and products is to utilize qualitative research. Critics of qualitative research, however, disapprove of methods such as marketing focus groups or in-depth interviews. These critics contend that qualitative research is prone to bias because of small sample size and the subjectivity of qualitative approaches. They prefer quantitative research methods. Those researchers preferring quantitative research methods point to the use of large sample sizes and rigorous statistical approaches that exemplify the quantitative method and imply greater generalization. Critics of this research method like to cite the Coca-Cola study.
In 1984, Coca-Cola spent millions of dollars on quantitative market research for their New Coke product. Research results led executives to change the formula to a newer, sweeter formula. Sales of New Coke were very disappointing and post-launch research indicated that consumers disliked the new product. Less than three months after the introduction of New Coke, the Coca-Cola Company announced a return to the old formula leading some to question the merits of quantitative research.
• On the Internet, research the quantitative marketing research undertaken by Coca-Cola. How did they design the research? In hindsight, what were seen as the shortcomings that resulted in such faulty data?
• Do you believe that the best marketing research approach is qualitative or quantitative? Justify your response. Are there particular situations where one approach is clearly preferable?
• What are the advantages and disadvantages of each method as a tool for marketing research? Provide specific examples to illustrate your response.

Resources

• Article
o D’Esopo, M., & Almquist, E. (2007). An approach to mastering the marketing mix. Business Strategy Series, 8(2), 122–131. Retrieved from ProQuest Central database.

In this article the authors describe how structural equation modeling, historical analyses, and in-market experiments can be used to analyze marketing investment patterns.
• Hauser, W. (2007). Marketing analytics: The evolution of marketing research in the twenty-first century. Direct Marketing, 1(1), 38–54. doi:10.1108/17505930710734125

By using advances in technology, such as data mining, and other marketing analytics, the author argues that companies can be much more effective in researching marketing issues and problems.

• Lee, N., & Broderick, A. (2007). The past, present, and future of observational research in marketing. Qualitative Market Research, 10(2), 121–129. doi:10.1108/13522750710740790

This article reviews the history and philosophical debates surrounding the use of observational research in marketing and then describes how technology has allowed observational research to expand beyond just qualitative research.

• Reppel, A., Szmigin, I., & Gruber, T. (2006). The iPod phenomenon: Identifying a market leader’s secrets through qualitative marketing research. Journal of Product & Brand Management, 15(4), 239–249. doi:10.1108/10610420610679601

A problem with online marketing research is how to account for those individuals who do not use the Internet. The authors in this article present a possible solution to this dilemma.

• Schibrowsky, J., Peltier, J., & Nill, A. (2007). The state of Internet marketing research: A review of the literature and future research directions. European Journal of Marketing, 41(7/8), 722–733. doi:10.1108/03090560710752366

After reviewing research studies on Internet marketing research, the authors of this study identify the three most researched areas: consumer behavior, Internet strategy, and Internet communications. They also discuss current trends in online marketing.

• Van de Ven, B. (2008). An ethical framework for the marketing of corporate social responsibility. Journal of Business Ethics, 82(2), 339–352. Retrieved from http://www.springer.com/social+sciences/applied+ethics/journal/10551

We can write this or a similar paper for you! Simply fill the order form!

How culture affects public policy Essay

How culture affects public policy
How culture affects public policy

How culture affects public policy

Order Instructions:

Choice one from the following:
1. How does culture affect public policy? You may use a case study as an example.
2. Can the concept of political culture explain public policy choices?
3. What are the implications of postmodernisation for public policy?
4. Is democracy culture specific or universal?

SAMPLE ANSWER

Introduction

Since culture influences government policies, and is also influenced in return, one of the public policies of a government should be to create conditions that will promote a vibrant and happy culture. Culture is a dynamic yet constantly changing process, therefore no one definition is correct. However, to better understand how it affects culture, it is important to first consider what a relevant definition should constitute. Hence, a relevant definition should make sense to people in the milieu in which they live so as to give a real sense of direction and meaning. This cultural milieu in which an individual is present can strongly affect the level of happiness and quality of life as it closely influences the type of public policy passed. Public policy, just like culture, can be described in various ways. Therefore, a relevant definition should constitute a determination of who gets what, when, and how they get it. From theory, it can be influenced by any individual or group of people that manages to garner sufficient power to enable them change resource distributions across society. This paper looks at the relationship between culture and public policy, and it also analyses other underlying components that may also affect the two.

How Culture Affects Public Policy

 In every country, there is a presence of mixed cultures that end up affecting public policy. Therefore, this means that the people of a country have varying beliefs on what is right and what is wrong. This presence of people with conflicting ideas in a society creates the impression that culture affects public policy by stirring moral disputes over areas to be pursued by law. This, however, is not the case as Enserink et al. (2007: 24) states that culture affects public policy by triggering empirical disagreements over the economic, crime control, national security, and other policy consequences that have been designed to promote the people’s common interest. Since culture is a source of identity for many people within a society, they always try to ensure that even the law respects their identity by not passing any policies that will go contrary to what they believe in their culture. Therefore, when the culture of a certain group encompass customs, code of etiquette, rituals and ceremonies, it is considered very important for the members to maintain all these beliefs. This is why the members of the cultural group may contest public policies that are against their code of etiquette, rituals and custom. If the group is powerful enough, the resulting public policy will be in their favour.

Disagreements on the empirical dimensions of most public policy related issues are quite common. Since different cultures have their own views of what is acceptable and what is not, it is expected that members of the society will have differing beliefs on certain issues such as the death penalty effects, handgun ownership’s role on crime, global warming significance, the health consequences of promiscuous sex and many others. According to research by Griswold (1994), such factual disagreements are polarized across distinct social groups including; ethnic, religious, racial, ideological, and regional groups. Moreover, the factual beliefs are more correlated across discrete and disparate issues. When such groups disagree, the public policy makers have the obligation of hearing them out, before trying to come up with a policy that will not negatively impact either groups, in terms of making them go against their culture. Therefore, it is clear that culture, which varies from one group to the other, will affect public policy as actions will be taken to ensure that the policy does not go against the groups’ customs and beliefs.

Culture affects public policy indirectly since it is what affects the identity of many within a society. As culture changes gradually, so does the identity of its members. However, as viewed in religion and civilisation, an individual will always have a fixed identity which is considered a false concept. This false fixed identity conception undercuts an individual’s identity freedom by making it impossible for the identity to change constantly in line with culture as it is supposed to be. Therefore, cultural diversity is smothered in the process. Since the different cultures expected to influence public policy making in this case will be smothered, the resulting public policy will be flawed as the false fixed identity will result in the contribution of few cultures only. Hence, cultural diversity is yet another value which contributes to the well being and coordination of public policy. It also expands choices for the policy makers since each culture presents its own customs and beliefs that should not be crossed in the public policy. Enserink (2007: 24) argues that diversity can be a very useful resource when it comes to resolving conflict. This is because it enhances conditions and conducive qualities that promote cultural differences, which come about as a result of complex patterns of customs, behaviours, and beliefs. These patterns are what play a major role in determining how public policy developed, as the policy makers will have to come up with ideas that are accepted by all cultures.

Cohen (2013: 12) however cautions against diversity as he states that it may end up threatening solidarity when it comes to participations of different cultures in public policy making, especially if it is growing rapidly. All governments from different parts of the world deal with common challenges such as how to manage food, water, infrastructure, education, health, social welfare, the environment, economic development, security, and governance systems. Yet, despite this similarity in challenges, the national governments and other stakeholders use varying public policies to address these issues depending on the country or region. This is an indication that culture affects public policy since different cultures are present in different countries, and the resulting public policies are usually in line with the cultural beliefs of that country (Cohen 2013, p.3). Cohen (2013: 4) further argues that the governments should obtain solid knowledge culture, above other socioeconomic factors that influence human behaviour, which are commonly applied in the modelling of public policy. This is because policy makers will be aware of the differences in beliefs and customs of all the available cultures, thus they will be better placed to create public policies that will be accepted generally across all cultures and produce desirable outcomes.

Frequently, public policy ideas developed and implemented in a certain jurisdiction will be transferred to, or even transformed to comfortably meet the needs and objectives of other jurisdictions (Heath 2012, p. 386). However, these transfers are not always desired, and may not be implementable as a result of the wide range of socio-political, economic, geographical and cultural differences that are existent between jurisdictions. Culture affects public policy in that what is right for one culture may be the opposite when the policy is transferred to another culture. This shows that culture affects public policy by triggering the inclusion of varying cultural ideas to ensure that all ideas from various cultures are included. Therefore, having an improved knowledge on national culture and the differences existing between them can play an important role in informing the international policy transfer practices, and also the joint policy learning exercises (Cohen 2013, p. 5).

To better explain this, a case study that looks at how national culture orientations may be used to better understand the relationship between knowledge construction and policy making, from a cultural perspective, is employed. When it comes to the inclusion of stakeholders who have the power to affect or get affected by the public policy making process, different countries have their own preferences on how the act may be handled to avoid problems which may surface as a result of disagreements (Heath 2012, p. 385). Such public participation in the decision-making or their participatory approaches to public policy has been highlighted as important internationally. This is because culture triggers the participation of groups or individuals in the process of public policy making. This is especially true in fields such as the environmental and technological risk focused decision-making, as well as development policy (Maleki & Bots 2013, p. 377). These public policy fields are what most cultures fight for as they have varying beliefs on each one of them.

In this case study, it is visible that alongside other political, technological, economical, and ecological factors, culture is also an element of public policy. For example, when cultural change takes place, social problems may arise, which will need the policy makers to resolve. According to Heath (2012: 386) the rise in rates of unwed childbearing and poverty of such families raised an issue saw to it that many activists joined hands to urge a focus on the promotion of various factors that would in turn reduce these cases. This form of change resulted to issues for the government as they had to find a way of ensuring that heterosexual, two parent households is achieved so as to reduce the instances of poverty for these families. Therefore, from this perspective, it is clear that culture can influence public policy through its effects on the economy (Kahan 2006, n.p). This example used from the case study shows the relationship since culture, as is depicted in early childbearing and polygamous marriages affected the economy as it enhanced poverty.

Next, this case study also supports the argument that culture affects the interests pursued by policy makers, and thus the eventual content of the public policy (Heath 2012, p. 387). Gollnick and Chinn (2009: n.p) argue that these interests of public policy makers is influenced by culture when these actors take their time to understand the different cultures effectively. Therefore, they will know what will be right and wrong for these cultures. This step will lead them towards wanting to create a policy that will be right for all cultures, thus it affects the content of the public policy. This leads us to the next point.

Culture also influences public policy since it is a source of the ideas that determine the policy (Rao & Walton 2004, n.p). According to the case study, Heath (2012: 387) states that policy scholars have studied the mode through which ideational processes inform the normative and cognitive procedures, which determine the legitimacy perceptions. Culture, therefore, plays an important role in producing ideas to be used for formation of public policy in that it actively articulates, understands consciously, and strategically deploys these ideas (Swidler 1986, p. 280). For policy makers to possess these ideas, they must first be ready to deeply learn and understand the various concepts and views of the different cultures.

Conclusion

Judging from the arguments in this paper, it is clear that culture truly affects public policy since it is the people who decide on what can be implemented. This is usually influenced by their customs, beliefs and world views, which stems from their culture. Since there are different cultures in every country, it is important that public participation is encouraged in the process of policy making. This is because the varying cultures will be expressed, and the policies resulting from the process will be accepted nationally. No group will feel left out in the process, thus no one will feel obligated to reject the policies or cause chaos. From the content of this paper, and the case study used, it is clear that culture affects public policy by triggering empirical disagreements over issues designed to promote the people’s common interest, as a result of false identity resulting to smothered cultures, a difference in what is right and wrong between cultures and many more. Therefore, culture affects public policy from more than one dimension, as is noted in this paper.

Bibliography

Cohen, N 2013, ‘Solving Problems Informally The Influence of Israel’s Political Culture on the Public Policy Process’, Innovation Journal, 18, 1, pp. 1-16, Business Source Complete, EBSCOhost, viewed 12 September 2014.

Enserink, B, Patel, M, Kranz, N, & Maestu, J 2007, ‘Cultural factors as co-determinants of participation in river basin management’, Ecology and Society, 12, 2, pp. 24, http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol12/iss2/art24/

Harsanyi, F, & Schmidt, S 2012, ‘Creating a public affairs function in countries without a public affairs culture’, Journal Of Public Affairs (14723891), 12, 1, pp. 86-97, Business Source Complete, EBSCOhost, viewed 12 September 2014.

Heath, M 2012, ‘Making Marriage Promotion into Public Policy: The Epistemic Culture of a Statewide Initiative’, Qualitative Sociology, 35, 4, pp. 385-406, Business Source Complete, EBSCOhost, viewed 12 September 2014.

Maleki, A, & Bots, P,W,G, 2013, ‘Journal of Comparative Policy Analysis: Research and Practice: A Framework for Operationalizing the Effect of National Culture on Participatory Policy Analysis’, Journal of Comparative Policy Analysis: Research and Practice, 15, 5, pp. 371-394.

Griswold, W 1994, “The Social Construction of Social Problems”, in Cultures and Societies in a Changing World, Pine Forge Press, Thousand Oaks, California.

Kahan, DM 2006, ‘Cultural Cognition and Public Policy’, Yale Law School Legal Scholarship Repository, Faculty Scholarship Series, Vol. 24, Issue 147.

Gollnick, DM & Chinn PC 2009, Multicultural Education in a Pluralistic Society, 8th ed., Merrill-Pearson Education Australia Pty Limited.

Swidler Ann 1986, ‘Culture in Action: Symbols and Strategies’, American Sociological Review,  Vol.51(2), pp.273-286, Peer Reviewed Journal, Accessed on 17 September 2014, Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2095521

Rao, V. and Walton, M. (eds.) 2004, “Culture and Public Action: Relationality, Equality of Agency, and Development”, in Rao, V. and Walton, M. (eds.) Culture and Public Action, Stanford University Press, Stanford, California

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Critique of health contemporary health program evaluation

Critique of health contemporary health program evaluation
Critique of health contemporary health program evaluation

Critique of health contemporary health program evaluation

Order Instructions:

Course: Health Promotion
Subject Name: Planning and evaluation 2
Level: Undergraduate year 2
Reference: Harvard (10 references)
Assignment Topic: critically analyse a contemporary health program evaluation, considering a range of social, economic and cultural contexts.
Format: Critical Appraisal
Length: 1000 WORDS
(3 PARTS: INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND, THE EVALUATION, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS)

This task requires you to REVIEW AND CRITIQUE THE FOLLOWING PUBLISHED EVALUATION: (PROVIDED)

DAVIS, B, McGrath, N, Knight, S, Davis, S, Norval, M, Freelander, G & Hudson, L 2004. Aminina Nud Mulumuluna (‘You gotta look after yourself’): Evaluation of the use of traditional art in health
promotion for aboriginal people in the Kimberley region of Western Australia, Australian Psychologist, 39(2), pp. 107-113.
http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00050060410001701816#.VA0lSfmSySo

This task is designed to encourage you to explore an evaluation that has been completed and has been published in an academic journal. In the CRITIQUE of THIS EVALUATION, you WILL IDENTIFY AND BRIEFLY DISCUSS THE FOLLOWING:

1) PROVIDE AN INTRODUCTION AND SOME BACKGROUND TO THE PROGRAM THAT WAS EVALUATED

  • What are the aims and/or objectives of the program?
  • Are they clear?
  • How could they have been made clearer? eg. Are they SMART?
  • Within this discussion, you need to make some judgement (with supporting EVIDENCE) as to whether these are appropriate.
  • What is the rationale for conducting the program?

You might also choose to mention something about the target group, the methods that were used or other relevant aspects. (NEED EVIDENCES)

2. WHY DO WE NEED TO EVALUATE THE PROGRAM??

  • Why is it important to know whether this program is effective or not?
  • In this section, you will talk about the evaluation of the program.?
  • Consider this: why do we need to evaluate programs in general?
  • Why does this program need to be evaluated?
  • Are there gaps in the literature?
  • Run in a different region or country?
  • Has it been modified?
  • Is it brand new?
  • Perhaps the program has been run before with, for example, a different population group, or is this the first time?
  • If it, or something similar, has been run previously, was it evaluated?

(TO GET HIGH SCORES):
1) Clear and comprehensive introduction to the program is presented (including aims).
2) Clearly stated RATIONALE or justification for the program is presented, the health issue is identified and the need for the program is supported by evidence.
3) A clear understanding of the program of study is demonstrated.

THE EVALUATION

  • What is the evaluation trying to do?
  • What are the aims of the evaluation – are they clear?
  • How could they have been made clearer?
  • What type of evaluation is this study? eg. process or impact? OR is it both? – ensure that you PROVIDE ADEQUATE DEFINITIONS TO BACK UP your response here…
  • Rigorous, quantitative measurement of an intervention requires accurate measurement of any change and a high degree of confidence that the change was due to the program and not other
    factors (hint: (PROVIDED) Windsor et al (2004) article would be beneficial here).
  • What is the study design for the evaluation of this program?

Once you have identified the design and methods used in the evaluation, you should make some comment on the strength of the?evaluation. (NEED EVIDENCES)

In doing so, you will provide answers to the following:

  • Is there a more rigorous study design that could have been used?
  • Why wasn’t it used for this specific study?
  • What are the advantages and disadvantages of such a study design. (NEED EVIDENCES)
  • You should briefly discuss any possible sources of measurement error or bias in the study, as well as any possible threats to internal and external validity. (NEED EVIDENCES)
  • Were the methods used for data collection in the evaluation appropriate? (NEED EVIDENCES)

(TO GET HIGH SCORES):
1) AIM(S) of the EVALUATION are clearly presented.
2) The TYPE of EVALUATION is clearly presented
3) An understanding of the STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS of this EVALUATION is clearly demonstrated and evidenced.
4) The EVALUATION METHODS are clearly described; the CRITIQUE is comprehensive and strongly supported by evidence.
5) The FINDINGS of the EVALUATION are clearly described and are related, with support from THE LITERATURE, TO THE BROADER CONTEXT OF THE HEALTH ISSUE

CONCLUSIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS

  • What were the findings of the evaluation?
  • Did the evaluation show that the intervention was a success? (NEED EVIDENCES)
  • Have the authors acknowledged the limitations of the evaluation?
  • Are threats to validity of concern in this evaluation? (NEED EVIDENCES)
  • Can you make any recommendations to strengthen the evaluation? (NEED EVIDENCES)

(TO GET HIGH SCORES):
1) Clear identification and succinct evidence-based discussion of all LIMITATIONS of the EVALUATION.
2) Comprehensive discussion of how THE FINDINGS OF THE EVALUATION might be used to improve the PROGRAM.
3) Appropriate & evidence-based RECOMMENDATIONS for improvement to EVOLUTION design are included.

SAMPLE ANSWER

Critique of health contemporary health program evaluation

Introduction

Background of the program

The following discussion engages in critical analysis of the evaluation of the use of traditional art in health promotion for aboriginal’s people in the Kimberly region of Western Australia. The aim of the project was on evaluation of preventive health resource developed for aboriginal people in the west Kimberly region.  The project was been undertaken by the Jean Hailes foundation For the Women and Aboriginals and non-Aboriginal health workers, educators and artistes from Looma, Pandunus Park, Mowanjum and derby (Allegrante & Sleet 2004, p 157-171).

The aim of the project was to determine whether traditional art and language in health promotion can provide for cultural identity and imparting modern health knowledge, that is, to determine whether integration of modern health knowledge and traditional one can contribute to contemporary view of the Aboriginal health ( Raingruber 2014, p 156-167).The aims of the project was not clear.  This is because initiatives and hypothesis from the project were not widely disseminated and used in other regions and communities. They mainly encompassed on Aboriginals only rather than having incorporated other regions to have effective data.  The objectives could have been made SMART if they could have not engaged other regions to act as control group to their project (Fallon, Begun & Riley 2013, p 143-178). For the program to be Specific, it is to be formulated to one community so that it can yield a good sample size to study with. For the program to be realistic, it has to produce diverse findings that can be deductively hypothesis to test its predictions. The issue of the time was not addressed in the program, as there was wastage of time in getting sample from Kimberly and South West Victoria. The other regions for example, could have some background of scenarios where incorporation of traditional art in health promotion was effective. These places could have been referenced from United States or other parts of Australia. The target group for the program was Aboriginal women. The program surveyed Aboriginal women using a comprehensive women’s health questionnaire in order to fully understand their reproductive and general health needs. The surveys were conducted to women from both the Kimberly and South West Victoria. The rationale behind this program was to identify reproductive health status and general; lifestyle factors associated with diabetes and cardiovascular.

Evaluation

`The program needs to be evaluated to detect areas that were not addressed. Another reason for evaluating the program is to provide alternative methods that could have been used by the program to produce effective results. The program needs to be evaluated to determine whether initiatives to the indigenous languages have a positive impact on the health promotion of the Aboriginal people of the Western Kimberly. Therefore, the program is a type of impact-oriented project (Raingruber 2014, p 156-167). The evaluation has to be undertaken to bridge the gap between the literatures. The gap between the literatures is the missing data on how far has the impacts from the program entrenched to the Aboriginals’ society. The program used questionnaires only to conduct its study. The study could have brought reasonable results if it had included such methods such as RCTs and Case studies.

The positive thing about RCTS is that the population studied is likely to give more personal data unlikely to questionnaires where most of the people lie. Case studies on the other hand are objective in the research eliminating the elements of emotions and feeling in the study. The antagonistic of case study is that, although people will corporate, samples will be in constant fear and anxiety in the study. For the evaluation to be effective, observation should be devised to be used (Tsey & Every2000, p 140-148). This comprises of observing the impacts of combination of modern and traditional methods in health promotion for Aboriginal people in Western Kimberly. Observation may take the form of overt and overt where the participants in health settings are studied. This type of evaluation had recently been employed in South Western Kimberly to determine the impact of improving communication between health workers and Aboriginal patients in health care setting in Australia.

Strength and weaknesses of this evaluation

There were varied strengths emanating from the evaluation of the strength was that Aboriginal women above 18 years corroborated in the study to provide reliable results. Many Aboriginals were able to change their diet and lifestyle to reinforce the need for preventive health strategies among these women. Another positive about the evaluation is that, the findings from the questionnaires suggested a high prevalence of PCOS in this population (Hoghugi & Long2004, p 120-123).The weakness of the evaluation was that, due to small sample size, the data lacked the elements of quantification. Another limitation from the evaluation was that the program was highly electrified with Western paradigms (Cara & Macrae 2005, p 134-137). This denied the evaluation to borrow from Aboriginals system of health. Another limitation from the evaluation is that the program kept jumping from one method to another that lead to inconsistent data (Cara & Macrae 2005, p 134-137).

Findings of the evaluation

The finding from the evaluation is that fifty percent of the women participated in the study. A half of the remaining women were from the Western Kimberly and the other half from South Victoria region. Most of Aboriginal women from the rural area cooperated as compared to their counterparts from urban centers. The overall findings are that women were highly characterized by high risk of cardiovascular disease (Tsey, Whiteside, Haswell-Elkins, Bainbridge, Cadet-James & Wilson 2010, p 169-179). Patients with diabetes and Cardiovascular disease need holistic and comprehensive involvement in the research to ensure that their plights are encompassed under one roof (Tsey, Whiteside, Haswell-Elkins, Bainbridge, Cadet-James & Wilson 2010, p 169-179). .

Conclusion

The analysis concludes that there exists literature gap between the evaluations of contemporary health program. It has been concluded that, the results could have been amplified if the study concentrated on the Aboriginal people of the Western Kimberly Only than encompassing on the other from South west Victoria. Not all participants cooperated in the study and therefore, led to small size of data (Raingruber 2014, p 156-167). Therefore, intervention with observations and RCTs will improve the evaluation of the program, as people with the disease will act in their capacity to perfect he preventive intervention to improve their contemporary life.

Recommendations

It is recommended that any attempt to evaluate contemporary health program evaluation should range from economic, social and cultural perceptive. It also recommended that the attempt should include not only questionnaires in its evaluation, but it should employ observations, RCTS and cohort studies (Turner, Richards& Sanders 2007, p 430-455). The evaluation has devised that case/cohort studies are important in addressing challenges experienced by the Aboriginals of South western Kimberly in Australia ( Raingruber 2014, p156-167)..

Reference

CARA, E., & MACRAE, A. (2005). Psychosocial occupational therapy: a clinical practice. Clifton Park, NY, Thomson Delmar Learning. pp134-137.

FALLON, L. F., BEGUN, J. W., & RILEY, W. J. (2013). Managing health organizations for quality and performance. Burlington, Mass, Jones & Bartlett Learning.pp143-178.

FERTMAN, C. I., & ALLENSWORTH, D. D. (2010). Health promotion programs from theory to practice. San Francisco, CA, Jossey-Bass. Retrieved fromhttp://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&scope=site&db=nlebk&db=nlabk&AN=317009

HOGHUGHI, M.& LONG, N. (2004). Handbook of parenting: theory and research for practice, London: SAGE Publications Ltd.pp120-123.

RAINGRUBER, B. (2014). Contemporary health promotion in nursing practice. Burlington, Mass, Jones & Bartlett Learning.pp156-167.

STEWART-BROWN, S.& MCMILLAN, AS.(2001). Home and community based parenting support programmers and interventions: report of Work-package 2 of the Data Prev project. Coventry: Warwick Medical School, University of Warwick. Retrieved from:<http://wrap.warwick.ac.uk/3239/>.

TSEY, K.& EVERY, A.(2000). Evaluating Aboriginal empowerment programs: the case of Family Wellbeing, Australian and New Zealand,Journal of Public Health.pp140-148.

TSEY, K., WHITESIDE, M., HASWELL-ELKINS, M., BAINBRIDGE, R., CADET-JAMES, Y.& WILSON, A.(2010). Empowerment and Indigenous Australian health: a synthesis of findings from Family Wellbeing formative research. Health and Social Care in the Community 18(2):169–79.

TURNER, K., RICHARDS, M.& SANDERS MR 2007. Randomized clinical trial of a group parent education programmer for Australian Indigenous families. Journal of Pediatrics and Child Health. pp430-455.

ALLEGRANTE, J. P., & SLEET, D. (2004). Derry-berry’s Educating for Health a Foundation for Contemporary Health Education Practice. Hoboken, John Wiley & Sons. pp157-171.

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The Leader Member Exchange Theory

The Leader Member Exchange Theory
The Leader Member Exchange Theory

The Leader Member Exchange Theory as a Framework for Assessing Leader-Follower Relationships

Order Instructions:

In Part B, we require you to write an essay on the following topic.

Essay Topic:
Roe (2014) argues that according to leader member exchange theory, followers who experience high quality relationships with the leader are in receipt of higher tangible rewards, such as pay, bonuses and more challenging assignments.
Critically assess whether leader member exchange theory provides an effective framework for assessing the relationships between leaders and followers.

Marking schedule for Part B:
10% of marks are allocated to the presentation of the essay. The student’s work should be typed with clear use of paragraphs and headings. Typographical and spelling errors should be avoided.
10% of marks are allocated to appropriate referencing of content. Students should familiarise themselves and make use of the Harvard referencing system and should cite and reference material properly. Students should make use of a range of resources (books, journal articles etc) and the literature used should be appropriate to the arguments made.
60% of marks are allocated to the analysis presented in the essay. Students should examine appropriate theoretical concepts and frameworks. Students should demonstrate an awareness of the wider context and present an in-depth discussion of current issues. Better students will demonstrate critical analysis skills and communicate their arguments in a clear and coherent manner.
20% of marks are allocated to the conclusions drawn. The conclusions should identify the key themes or issues under consideration. Conclusions should be well supported from the analysis and highlight the significance of arguments, evidence and insights

Guidance Notes on Part B:
You must refer to relevant literature throughout the essay. This can be in the form of textbooks, journal articles, or relevant web-based material. Student are directed in particular to the following databases which they may find useful in developing their essay:
• Emerald
• ABI Inform Complete (Proquest)
• Ingenta
• Science Direct
• Sage Online

In particular, the following journals may be helpful to you in relation to the prescribed topic:
• Leadership Quarterly (Available on Science Direct)
• Leadership and Organisation Development Journal (Available on Emerald)
• Team Performance Management (Available on Emerald)
• Journal of Management Development (Available on Emerald)
• Group and Organisation Management (Available on Sage Online)

You may wish to refer to relevant theory or you may wish to cite relevant research or examples to support your arguments. Remember all material cited must be referenced using the Harvard Referencing system. Also please refer to the University guidance notes on the avoidance of Plagiarism.
Please remember to structure your essay appropriate. You should use headings – and include an introduction, main body and conclusion/recommendations sections.
While we do not specify a particular number of references/citations to be included, you should include at least a minimum of 15 different citations/references from books and journal articles in your essay.
Please answer the topic posed. Your essay should NOT be a summary of leadership theories. You need to specifically address the topic and question posed.

Minimum Essay Length: 2000 words
Maximum Essay Length: 2500 words
Aside from the reference list, your essay (Part B) should not include any appendices.

Submission deadline: Friday 29thAugust 2014, 11.59pm (UK time)
Please note that whilst the submission deadline is Friday 29th August at 11.59pm (UK time), you are free to make your submission at any time before this date. You do not need to wait until this day, or the day before or the week before.

Important Note:

Please ensure that Part A and Part B are submitted as separate documents. The documents should clearly be marked Part A and Part B and your matriculation number and module code should be clearly marked on the submission.

Coursework Assessment Feedback
Matriculation No. Date of Submission:
Module: Leading Strategic Decision-Making
Part B: Essay Cohort:

Category Comment

Presentation of the essay. Clear use of paragraphs and headings and the text is free from typographical and spelling errors.
(10%)

Referencing of content. Consistent use of Harvard Referencing throughout the essay with adequate citation support for arguments being made.
(10%)

Analysis.
Comprehensive examination of appropriate theoretical frameworks and models. Strong arguments presented with critical insights and good communication skills in evidence.
(60%)

Conclusions.
Clear identification of key themes and issues. Synthesis of core arguments and formulation of insights and recommendations as appropriate
(20%)

General Comments:

Overall Grade: Marker:

SAMPLE ANSWER

The Leader Member Exchange Theory as a Framework for Assessing Leader-Follower Relationships

Introduction

The leader member exchange (LMX) theory does not qualify as an effective framework for assessing the relationship between leaders and followers. Roe (2014) in defining the LMX theory postulates that followers whose relationship with leaders are of high quality tend to receive higher tangible rewards including pay, bonuses and superior assignments. While this theory is praised for being the only leadership theory that brings dyadic relationship as a core of the leadership process and thus explains how people relate with each other and with leaders within organisations, it fails to explain how the leader-member relationships are created and what underlies how respect, trust and obligations are built. The theory is also denigrated because it tends to only support privileged groups within the organisation and therefore appears discriminatory and unfair. In this paper, the LMX theory is critically assessed with an objective of demonstrating that it is not an effective framework to assess leader-follower relationships.

Understanding the leader member exchange theory

The LMX theory was first introduced by Dansereau, Graen, and Haga (1975) and is based on the idea that leadership is built based on dyadic relationships between a leader and his/her followers (Sparrowe and Liden, 1997). According to Graen and Uhl-Bien (1995), leaders tend to create higher quality relationships with selected followers; who are consequently accorded higher tangible rewards and more superior assignments. This can be explained by the formation of in-groups and out-groups which represent those with higher quality relationships versus those with lower quality relationships respectively (Van Breukelen, Konst and Van Der, 2002).

A closer look at the application of LMX theory

The LMX theory has in the past received an almost equal share of support and criticism as far as its ability to assess leader-follower relationships is concerned. This is mostly pegged to its potential to promote effective relationships and consequently lead to a productive workforce (Jones, 2009).

            Strengths

A number of strengths are associated with the LMX theory. To begin with, it is the sole theory that explains leadership based on dyadic relationships (Chen, Lam and Zhong, 2007). Secondly, it establishes the importance of communication in the organisation and consequently validates our understanding of why people and leaders interact as they do within organisations (Fix and Sias, 2006). Thirdly, the LMX theory can be used to explain how leadership networks are created by individuals within the organisation and how these translate into future working relationships. The LMX theory is applicable in different types of organisations and at all management levels (Becker, Halbesleben and O’Hair, 2005). Lastly, the LMX theory has been found to influence surbodinates’ level of creativity, motivation and positive organizational outcomes. In a study of 26 project teams in high-technology firms however, the frequency of negative LMX was as high as that of positive LMX (Tidd and Bessant, 2011). This denotes that it may either enhance or undermine the sense of competence and self-determination among subordinates.

Weaknesses

The LMX theory has been criticised over its ability to create meaningful relationships, with questions being raised as to how members of the in-group are selected and whether personal interests could challenge professionalism where this theory is applied (Murph and Eshner, 1999). Secondly, the theory is seen to be discriminatory as it tends to alienate members of the out-group; given that the most important tasks, assignments and rewards go to the in-group (Becker, Halbesleben and O’Hair, 2005; Chen, Lam and Zhong, 2007). Thirdly, the LMX theory does not address the question of personal characteristics and how they could affect relationships. In this relation, it has been established that such characteristics may affect the nature of relationships due to differences in perception, interaction and communication exchanges (Chen, Lam and Zhong, 2007). LMX theory according to Sherony and Green (2002) could have a significant impact on the level of trust, respect and openness in the organization; leading to hoarding of resources by employees who do not feel appreciated. Lastly, culture plays an imperative role in determining the nature and quality of relationships; yet this is not addressed in the LMX theory (Graen, G. B.; Uhl-Bien, 1995).

Why the LMX theory is not effective in explaining leader-follower relationships

The discussion above establishes that LMX theory has its pros and cons as far as assessing leader-follower relationships is concerned. A majority of the strengths however dwell on the validation of the theory itself as opposed to its application in relationship development. In essence, the LMX theory can be considered ineffective in explaining leader-follower relationships. This section is a discussion of the weaknesses of LMX theory outlined above; with an objective of demonstrating its ineffectiveness in explaining leader-follower relationships.

The question of how the high quality relationships between leaders and members are developed is among the most debated about factor in this theory. The LMX theory fails to illustrate any guidelines that would ensure that the strong relationships are based on a high the level of professionalism (Sparrowe and Liden, 1997). Are the relationships based on performance where the leader tends to build better relationships with high performers? Is it at a personal level where the leader creates good relationships with people they know or who are easy to deal with depending on personality compatibility? Or is it at an intellectual level where individuals get along because they have common interests? These questions point to the fact that there is no effective means of establishing how these relationships are created (Sherony and Green, 2002; Tierney, Farmer and Graen, 1999).

. Furthermore, it is difficult to determine whether such relationships are authentic and professional; given that human beings tend to have better relationships with people who are considered ‘useful’ in their lives (Sagie, 1996). This again leads to the issue of followers who do not have qualities that the leader would ‘admire’ and this implies the possibility of poor relations with this group (Sherony and Green, 2002).

Based on the above argument, the plight of the out group who do not have close links with the leader is not addressed in the LMX theory. This brings out the theory as discriminatory as it only concentrates on members who have a higher quality relationship with leaders (Fix and Sias, 2006). The LMX theory does not address issues associated with unfairness and distributive justice and how these could impact on the overall relationship situation in the organisation (Becker, Halbesleben and O’Hair, 2005). Does this mean that the leader does not strive to establish good relationships with other followers? Is there a possibility that the low quality relationship are likely to deteriorate further because the followers in this group are not well motivated? The LMX theory according to Murphy and Ensher (1999) tends to favour the group with the higher quality relationships; such that they get all the superior privileges and this raises the question on whether the other group receives similar attention. It appears as though followers who do not enjoy good relationships with the leaders are unimportant and is hence highly discriminatory. Consequently, it is only natural that the remaining group will feel left out and demotivated; which may further degrade the leader-follower relationship and create tension within the organisation (Becker, Halbesleben and O’Hair, 2005). Using the LMX theory to assess leader-follower relationships thus creates room for matters of inequality to cast doubt on the effectiveness of the theory.

The theory fails to illustrate how personal characteristics could affect the relationship between leaders and followers. George and Jones (2008) seeks to explain why some employees may appear to have better relationships with supervisors while others have low quality relationships and narrows this down to the role of personality and personal characteristics in influencing communication exchanges. They note that such characteristics may impact on the nature of interaction, perceptions of one another and interpersonal communication.

In an example demonstrating a link between personality traits and communication, Schaubroeck, Lam and Cha (2007) compare extroverts and introverts. They note that extroverts are more outgoing, open to interaction, assertive, accommodative to arguments and have a higher tolerance for disagreement; while the opposite is true for introverts. This could explain why different forms of relationships are likely to emerge based on personal traits. The LMX theory does not bring into consideration such traits and how they are likely to impact on the quality of leader-follower relationships; yet they would serve as the utmost predictor of the quality of LMX between leaders and followers (Tierney, Farmer and Graen, 1999). It would be natural for example for a leader to have better relationships with followers who are outgoing and aggressive as opposed to those who are reserved and quiet. This means that the latter not only fail to enjoy a good relationship with their leaders but their potential may also go unnoticed (Sparrowe and Liden, 1997). The LMX theory therefore appears incomplete and does not form a good basis for analysing relationships between leaders and followers.

The LMX theory fails to address the importance of trust, respect and openness in building relationships and how the leader can effectively maintain the trust of the ‘out-group’. According to Tidd and Bessant (2013), these values exist where there is emotional safety; such that everyone in the organisation is free to air their ideas and opinions. They further note that where trust and openness are too low, the possibility of people hoarding resources including information is high. Given that the LMX theory has been criticized for creating trust, respect and openness issues among employees who feel alienated, how then does a leader ensure that he can bring out the best out of each employee based on the LMX theory? (Zaccaro, Rittman and Marks, 2001). A critical look at the theory would therefore indicate that the theory has a significant level of gaps; especially in how the leader manages relationships to ensure that trust levels are maintained within the organisation and that the potential of all employees is utilised (Taggar, 2001).

Research has shown that some dyads experience difficulty in forming high quality LMX relationships; given their cultural characteristics. Cultural aspect not only determine the kind of relationship a person has with others Jones (2009), use gender dissimilarity as a means to explain this phenomenon; arguing that members of the same gender are more likely to have high quality exchange relationships than when the opposite is true. This denotes a skewed position and further questions the factors underlying the development of relationships within organisations. The LMX theory fails to illustrate how gender similarity may influence the nature of relationships and how this would impact on the organizational outcomes (Jones, 2009). The same is applicable for other cultures where members of one culture are likely to have common interests, understand each other better and even tolerate each other (Sparrowe and Liden, 1997).Van Breukelen, Konst and Van Der (2002) note that individual interactions are driven by common bonds such as cultural characteristics, beliefs, religious and gender orientation among others and that people from the same cultural affiliation are likely to enjoy better relationships because they understand each other better. This has a significant implication on the nature of relationships in the organisation; yet the LMX theory fails to address the influence of culture in its theoretical framework. The theory is thereby ineffective in assessing leader-member relationships.

Conclusion

The LMX theory inadvertently favours the development of privileged groups in the organizational setting and therefore appears discriminatory. This gives rise to a significant number of issues which the LMX theory does not address as far as relationship building is concerned. Issues arise on the underlying procedure of how relationships are created, whether they are out rightly professional and whether personal traits, cultural characteristics and gender similarity among others have an impact on the kind of relationships created within the organisation. These are conspicuously ignored in the theory despite their significance in determining the nature of relationships within groups. There is also the possibility of straining relationships within the workplace as members who have lower quality relationships begin to feel the alienation. Lastly, the LMX theory fails to explain how a leader can maintain healthy relationships with all members and thus eliminate the possibility of trust issues emerging within the organisation. Despite the strengths identified for the LMX theory, these mostly explain application of the theory but do little in providing a framework that effectively assesses relationships in the workplace setting. In conclusion, it is possible to affirm that the leader member exchange (LMX) theory does not qualify as an effective framework for assessing the relationship between leaders and followers

References

Becker, J. A. H., Halbesleben, J. R. B., & O’Hair, D. H. (2005). Defensive communication and burnout in the workplace: The mediating role of leader-member exchange. Communication Research Reports, 22, 143-150.

Chen, Z., Lam, W., & Zhong (2007). Leader-member exchange and member performance: A new look at individual-level negative feedback-seeking behavior and team-level empowerment culture. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92(1), 202- 212.

Fix, B., & Sias, P. M. (2006). Person-centered communication, leader-member exchange, and employee job satisfaction. Communication Research Reports, 23, 35-44.

George, J. M., & Jones, G. R. (2008). Understanding and managing organizational behavior  (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Graen, G. B.; Uhl-Bien, M. (1995). “The Relationship-based approach to leadership: Development of LMX theory of leadership over 25 years: Applying a multi-level, multi-domain perspective”. Leadership Quarterly, 6 (2): 219–247

Jones, J. A. (2009). Gender Dissimilarity and Leader-Member Exchange: The Mediating Effect of Communication Apprehension. Emerging Leadership Journeys, 2 (1), 3-16.

Murphy, S. E., & Ensher (1999). The effects of leader and subordinate characteristics in the development of leader-member exchange quality. Journal of Applied Psychology, 29(7), 1371-1394.

Sagie, A. 1996. Effects of leader’s communication style and participative goal setting on performance and attitudes. Human Performance, 9, 51-64.

Schaubroeck, J., Lam, S. S. K., & Cha, S. E. 2007. Embracing transformational leadership: Team values and the impact of leader behavior on team performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92, 1020-1030.

Sherony, K. M. Green, S. G. (2002). Coworker exchange: Relationships between coworkers, leader-member exchange, and work attitudes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87, 542-548.

Sparrowe, R. T. & Liden, R. C. (1997). Process and structure in leader-member exchange.

Academy of Management Review, 22, 522-552.

Taggar, S. (2002). Individual creativity and group ability to utilize individual creative resources:

A multilevel model. Academy of Management Journal, 45, 315-330.

Tidd, J. & Bessant, J. (2013). Managing Innovation: Integrating Technological, Market and  Organizational Change. Edinburgh, Scotland: CAPDM Limited.

Tierney, P., Farmer, S. M., & Graen, G. B. (1999). An examination of leadership and employee creativity: The relevance of traits and relationships. Personnel Psychology, 52, 591-620.

Van Breukelen, W., Konst, D. & van der Vlist, R. (2002). Effects of LMX and differential treatment on work unit commitment. Psychological Reports, 91, 220-230.

Zaccaro, S. J., Rittman, A. L., & Marks, M. A. (2001). Team leadership. Leadership Quarterly, 12: 451-483

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Strategic Decision Making Essay Paper

Strategic Decision Making
Strategic Decision Making

Strategic Decision Making

Order Instructions:

Leading Strategic Decision-Making
End of Module Coursework Assessment
This graded assessment accounts for 90% of your final grade and comprises two separate assessment exercises: Part A & Part B which are both weighted equally at 45% of your final grade.
You need to use this cover sheet for your assignment.
Part A
In Part A, we assess learning outcomes related to units 1, 2, 3, 7 & 10 by providing you with case study information on the leadership and strategic development processes which operate within the innovative context at Google.
The purpose of this brief is to provide you:
• Details of the coursework assessment: background to the case and questions
• Information on presentation and submission date.
• Guidelines to assist you in answering the questions
• The assessment marking criteria and feedback sheet for Part A.

Case Study Background & Questions
Read carefully the case information on Google which is contained in the following two sources:
1. Johnson G, Whittington R, & Scholes K (2011) Exploring Strategy, 9thedition, FT Prentice Hall, Chapter 12 Strategic Development Processes, page 426-428: Google: who drives the strategy?
(digitised copy available in unit 3 as prescribed reading)
2. Grant R (2013) Contemporary Strategy Analysis, 8thedition, John Wiley & Sons Ltd, Case Study 20 available online: Google Inc.: What’s the Corporate Strategy?
Both sources cover the strategic development of Google from start-up, to stock market listing (IPO), to market dominance in internet search. Source 2 finishes in early 2012 and updates developments beyond the end date of source 1 (2010). For example, we see in source 2 how Larry Page, one of the founders, replaces Eric Schmidt as CEO in 2011. Schmidt took up the post of Chairman of the company and would continue to act as an advisor to the founders, Larry Page and Sergey Brin.
Both sources provide insights into the leadership and management practices within Google. Source 1 places more emphasis on how this approach affects the strategic decision-making process (unit 3), whereas source 2 explores the content of its strategy, questioning its corporate level strategy (unit 1) and how it relates to its strategic direction and mission (unit 2).
Part A of your coursework assessment requires you to answer two questions:
Questions.
1. 1. Using the Ashridge Sense of Mission Model as a theoretical framework, analyse the case evidence on whether Google has achieved a sense of mission through its existing leadership.
2. In a famous interview Eric Schmidt Executive Chairman of Google stated that “We don’t really have a five-year plan.”

Based on this statement, critically discuss Google’s approach to strategic decision-making and consider to what extent you think their approach is transferable to organisations in other industry contexts.
Both questions are equally weighed and you should review how grading is allocated in the Coursework Feedback Sheet on page 4.

Presentation and Submission Date
The assessment in Part A is a case analysis and by completing many of the self-assessment exercises in the units, you are provided with an opportunity to improve your case analysis technique. You should note that case analysis is not a conceptual explanation or discussion but the application of concepts and frameworks to interpret the case information, analyse key events and statements, and reach evaluative judgements. The concepts and frameworks are covered in the module learning units and the guidance below gives you a few pointers on how you need to use this knowledge to answer the questions. In developing your analysis and arguments, you should use supporting evidence from the information contained in the case studies.
Your answers must only be derived from the information on Google contained in the two case study sources listed above. You are not required to consult other sources on Google or go beyond the end date of the second case study. The reason for this is that your analysis and evaluation is being assessed at this point in the organisation’s development and not in the light of subsequent events. As a result you should not include references on Google from the internet or other sources.
In terms of presentation, introduce each question indicating how you will structure your answer and conclude each answer with reference to your preceding arguments and the task required by the question. Do not present your answer in rigid report format but you may wish to divide your answer into sections which reflect the major elements of your analysis. The combined word count of your answers to both questions must comply with the following guidance:
Minimum Length: 2000 words
Maximum Length: 2500 words
Submission date: Friday 29th August 2014, 11.59 pm (UK time)
The word limit excludes appendices and bibliography. Where a submission exceeds the stated word limit the maximum grade awarded will be P1. Appendices can be useful to provide additional information from your analysis but you must incorporate the key analytical arguments into the main body of your answer.
Guidance Notes
The assessment feedback sheet at the end of this section gives the marking criteria for the overall case analysis. Remember, in writing your solution to the questions you must not describe what the case says but use the concepts to analyse the information and use the evidence/facts in the case to support your analysis.

Question 1 asks you to discuss the mission and leadership approach at Google in order to evaluate how it achieves a sense of mission. The question specifically asks you to use the Ashridge Sense of Mission model which is part of your prescribed reading for unit 2. The elements of strategic leadership and the differences between transactional and transformational approaches are included in unit 1 and you should be able to relate these to the innovative context at Google (unit 7).

Specifically you should apply and discuss the four elements of mission (Ashridge model) to Google. When considering purpose and strategy, you should evaluate the issues raised in case source 2 on questions surrounding Google’s corporate level strategy and “identity”. In doing this avoid being overly descriptive of the content of Google’s strategy as you will soon exceed the word limit. Attempt to develop arguments and, if necessary, include supporting details in appendices. You must also address the central issue in the question of how the fifth element, a sense of mission, is achieved through the alignment of the employees’ personal values with those of the organisation. In doing this, consider the role played by the leadership and management approach at Google to integrate the elements of mission, especially the behavioural standards and values of the organisation, with those of the employee.

To answer question 2 you will draw on your learning from unit 3 on strategic decision-making and your prescribed reading from Johnson et al, chapter 12. You will need to examine the leadership of the company based on both cases and how decisions are taken then relate these to the major approaches, especially planned and incremental, to develop arguments and reach conclusions on how strategic decision-making is practised in Google. Once you have identified its approach with supporting evidence, you should discuss the advantages and disadvantages of this approach as part of your critical assessment. To consider whether their approach is transferable you will need to discuss the extent to which it is contextually specific to Google.

Part A
Coursework Assessment Feedback
Matriculation No. Date of Submission:
Module: Leading Strategic Decision-Making
Part A: Google Case Study Cohort:

Category Comment

Presentation of analysis, use of appropriate concepts, and depth of understanding of the issues raised in the case.
(10%)

Evaluation of Google’s mission and how it achieves a sense of mission through its approach to leadership and management.
(35%)

Critically assessment of Google’s approach to strategic decision-making practised at Google and its potential transferability to other organisations.
(35%)

Ability to reach coherent and logical arguments from the analysis, supported by case evidence.
(20%)

General Comments:

Overall Grade: Marker:

N.B. the percentages are shown as indications of the relative importance of each section and should not be taken as a precise indication of the marking scheme.

SAMPLE ANSWER

Strategic Decision Making

Question 1

A strong mission exists where the four components of Ashridge Sense of Mission Model reinforce each other. These include purpose, strategy, values and behaviours; all which must be successfully managed by strategic leaders in order to achieve the organisation’s mission. In this discussion, the Ashridge Sense of Mission Model is used to analyse Google to establish whether its sense of mission has been achieved through the existing leadership.

Purpose defines the sole existence of an organization and is considered an essential part of the organisation’s mission (Campbell and Yeung, 1991). Strategic leaders seek to maximize shareholder value and stakeholder value through providing desired products and services to clients while creating returns for the shareholders. Google’s main purpose is to make internet search as convenient for users as possible through providing information, links and well developed content. Through well calculated leadership strategy, Google’s management has succeeded in developing the best search engine in the world; enabling users to access all forms of information online. However, Google has significantly deviated from its main purpose and invested in other projects including software development and telecommunication. This raises questions about its mission and based on this element of the Ashridge Sense of Mission Model, Google’s mission cannot be effectively assessed because it fails in accurately defining its purpose.

Strategy represents the tactics that a company uses to enhance its competitiveness in the market and derive value for its stakeholders and shareholders. In assessing an organisation’s mission, strategy is informed by purpose and is responsible for defining behaviour within the organisation. Google’s strategy is to let employees lead innovation. This has worked well for the organisation and leaders seek to intervene as little as possible; only taking a motivational role. This denotes the concept of transformational leadership which essentially drives motivation by promoting personal and professional growth. According to Volberda et al (2011), transformational leadership promotes innovation and creativity and in most cases yields a successful organisation. Transformation leadership must be accompanied by mission awareness in order to derive success.

Values define the beliefs, moral principles and expectations that constitute the company’s culture (Campbell and Yeung, 1991). They give direction and define what is right in the organisational setting. At Google, creativity and innovation, teamwork, dedication to work and attention to consumer needs inform its mission of providing the best products for its users. Based on this element, it can be established that Google is on track as far as its mission is concerned; given its values are well embedded in the organisational culture.

Unless purpose and strategy are implemented, they are merely intellectual thoughts; and having a policy and behaviour guidelines to guide everyday activities is therefore imperative (Campbell and Yeung, 1991). Behaviours at Google including teamwork and cooperation are deeply ingrained into the organisation’s culture. Individuals work in groups and brainstorming has played a great role in the generation and critique of ideas; thus creating innovative products. This illustrates that Google’s mission is reflected in the organisation’s behaviour

The fifth element in the model is the ‘sense of mission’, which basically the importance of individual values being matched with the organisation’s values. This calls for well calculated recruitment procedures to ensure that the identified employees are committed towards delivering the organisation’s mission and objectives. In addition, it calls on organizations to ensure employee engagement and motivation to assure their commitment to the organisation’s mission. Volberda et al (2011), note that strategic leaders effectively accomplish commitment to the vision and mission of the organization by aligning the employee and organizational goals.

Google seeks to recruit only highly qualified individuals who are not only capable of doing the job but also passionate about innovation. Google is highly rigid and extremely choosy when it comes to recruitment and all employees must pass through a series of interviews and assessment besides being qualified in terms of educational background to ensure that the selected individuals will bring in great ideas and high quality work. This ties the organisation’s mission of being the leading search engine company with the employees’ desire to accomplish through developing highly innovative ideas to drive the organisation’s growth. It is therefore justified to state that Google has achieved a sense of mission through its existing leadership.

In terms of employee engagement and motivation, Google seeks to empower employees to realize their potential by giving them discretion to make important decisions. The remuneration and benefits package at Google is also very attractive and employees are given the opportunity to use a proportion of their time to pursue their own interests. This makes Google a attractive environment to work in and consequently employees can work towards achieving the organisation’s mission.

Question 2

“Failing to plan is planning to fail” is a common saying depicting the need for organizations to make both long-term and short-term plans to guide the organisation’s strategy. A plan not only gives direction but also ensures that all important aspects of the strategy are met (Johnson, Gerry and Scholes, 2011). Based on these propositions therefore, Google’s strategic approach may be considered a deviation from the norm; leading to questions on whether an organization could actually succeed without a solid plan. This is a discussion on Google’s approach to strategic decision making and the possibility of transferring this approach to organisations in other industries. It includes a discussion on the advantages and disadvantages of an incremental approach to decision making that Google adopts as opposed to a planned approach.

The Executive Chairman of Google, Eric Schmidt, during a famous interview categorically states that the organization has no five-year plan. This symbolises an approach to decision making that is unplanned and open for any ideas that come along. Google’s approach can be explained by the nature of the industry which calls for the organization to be constantly on the look-out for new social and technological trends, new forms of demand and possible innovations to enhance user experiences. Having a rigid plan therefore restricts the organisation from exploring new possibilities; yet Google seeks to stretch the imagination and innovation of its staff to create new ideas as much as possible. Theirs can be considered an incremental approach to decision making as opposed to a planned approach.

There are various advantages associated with the incremental approach to decision making. To begin with, the incremental approach is known to be highly successful in the modern day dynamic environment where customer needs are constantly changing. It allows for flexibility in adjusting plans unlike in formal and planned decision making approach where so much time may be required to plan for unexpected changes thus rendering plans obsolete. In the ever evolving web-based business, the more flexible and the faster the organisation can respond to changing consumer demands, the more successful it is likely to be. Google believes in rapid response as opposed to planning.

Incremental approach creates a learning organisation culture that stifles knowledge and creativity within the organisation (Johnson, Gerry and Scholes, 2011). Google gives its employees the freedom to explore new possibilities and the management tries as hard as possible not to take a lead role in developing new ideas. Failures are taken positively and used to fuel future developments. This has ensured that it can develop user friendly products and thus take a leading role in the industry.

Organisations may be more effective if business strategy is based on learning and an incremental approach leaves room for learning. This happens where the incremental approach is utilised and products are developed based on continuous research The incremental approach to decision making explains why Google is not ashamed to declare its failures and proudly withdraw products which are seen not to be working well. Failure is seen as success because it gives the company direction as far as making better and more useful products is concerned. In the case of a planned approach, time and resource wastage is likely to occur because it leaves no room for flexibility.

Grant (2013), in the case of Kodak note that the incremental approach worked for the company because it allowed it to gradually move from the traditional to digital imaging and thus maintained its competitive advantage. Google in the same way must approach web evolution as a process; where the ability to produce user friendly products is based on continuous research and market studies.

Using the incremental approach saves a significant amount of resources because plans are made and implemented in small steps; such that it is easy to identify ideas that are not working and hence eliminate them before investing too much on them. Google often rolls out half-finished products and waits for user critique and ideas. This not only gives the organisation an opportunity to establish what the user wants but it is also a learning opportunity and a chance to utilise end users for the company’s gain.

The incremental approach has its own disadvantages and may not always be as effective. It is highly unpredictable unlike planned decision making and the chances of making uncalculated moves are increased. Google for example has to keep withdrawing products that were initially thought to be appealing because they did not meet the intended purpose. Secondly, incremental approach to decision making may slow down organisational procedures because unlike planned decision making, there is no guide to how decisions are made. Conflicts may arise due to differences in opinions and this makes it unfavourable especially in large organisations. Thirdly, incremental decision making approach is highly volatile and unpredictable. This is unlike planned decision making which is known for consistent results because it is well thought of, planned and evaluated before it can be adopted; which makes it highly reliable.

The incremental approach to decision making emerges as an effective approach and other organisations that seek to emulate Google would stand to gain from the flexibility of this approach and its ability to yield successful results. However, not every organisation can successfully adopt this approach unless it is dealing with an uncertain environment such as the technology market; where general goals exist as in the case of new organisations where precise objectives have not been set; where experimentation is necessary as managers seek to establish best strategy; and where there is need to coordinate emergent strategies. Organisations adopting the incremental approach must be willing to invest in research and be ready to undertake risks. As in the case of Google, a company is at a risk of losing financially when projects that do not meet intended purposes following research and trials have to be eliminated

References

Campbell, Andrew & Yeung, Sally, (1991) “Creating a sense of mission” from Long Range Planning. London: Pergamon Press

Grant, Robert M.  (2013). Contemporary Strategy Analysis. Edinburgh, Scotland: CAPDM Limited.

Johnson, Gerry; Whittington, R. & Scholes, K., (2011) “Chapter 12 : Strategy development processes” from Johnson, Gerry; Whittington, R. & Scholes, K., Exploring strategy [tex    & cases] pp.396-428, Harlow: FT Prentice Hall

Tidd, J. & Bessant, J. (2013). Managing Innovation: Integrating Technological, Market and Organizational Change. Edinburgh, Scotland: CAPDM Limited.

Volberda H. W, Morgan R. E, Reinmoeller, Patrick, Hitt, M.A, Ireland R.D, Hoskisson R. E, (2011) “Chapter 11 : Strategic leadership” from Volberda H.

W, Morgan R. E, Reinmoeller, Patrick, Hitt, M.A, Ireland R.D, Hoskisson R. E, Strategic management: competitiveness and globalization : concepts and cases pp.398-434, Andover: South-Western Cengage Learning

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Worldview Analysis Research Assignment

Worldview Analysis
Worldview Analysis

Worldview Analysis: Process Philosophy and American Government/Society

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For this assignment, you will write a 2–3-page essay (double-spaced, 1-inch margins) providing examples of how some facet of “process philosophy” has impacted American government and/or society. You may focus on just 1 example, or you may discuss 2–3 examples.

Options include the following topics:
• A specific piece of legislation.
• The “party platform” of either the Republican Party or the Democratic Party (or both).
• Family and marriage.
• Economics.
• Civil rights.
• Education.

SAMPLE ANSWER

Worldview Analysis: Process Philosophy and American Government/Society

The concept of “process philosophy”, as postulated by two scholars Alfred N. Whitehead and Charles Sharthorne, operates from a core belief that processes and events are the key determining ontological categories (Hausman, 2008). Basically, the two elements provide a platform to justify the existence of all forms in nature, reality, and all categories of being as well as all their relations. While this concept is largely anchored on the Einsteinian world-view, it has been widely applied in real life as a factor that drives and influences key facets in the human society, especially that of the United States (Stanlick, 2013). It is on this premise that this paper proceeds to develop an interrelationship between the philosophy and key aspects of the American society, specifically, economics, and family and marriage.

Considering the influence of the process philosophy on America’s economy, the relationship between them can only be remotely traced. However, a keen analysis of the intricacies of the concept reveals astounding connection with some key principles and theories that have played a great role in shaping the economic realm of the superpower nation. For instance, the Marxian, Libertarian, and the Keynesian theories have some shreds of connection with the philosophy (Stanlick, 2013). Inasmuch as this relationship may not be auspiciously established for all the aforementioned theoretical frameworks, at least the Keynesian theory holds some relevance.

This claim can be substantiated by looking back into the historic periods such as the war eras. Since the Keynesian theory is firmly anchored on historical perspectives, the process philosophy provides supporting clues to it by favouring most of its historical experiences, and being more pragmatic when it comes to dealing with human problems (Stroll, & Popkin, 2014). Basically, it is a common knowledge that economics exists as a channel for alleviating human suffering, and providing a platform for exchange of goods and services. This principle has helped a great deal to create a balanced form of carrying out transactions. As a result, the adoption of the concepts of Keynesian theory, supported closely by the process philosophy, has provided a means of survival, and placed a justification for the existence of the human nature (Stanlick, 2013). It this belief in the contribution of economics to human life that has so much shaped the American economy, and enabled it to rise to the position of a superpower.

Secondly, the process philosophy makes some basic assumptions of human beings and the society, that the process view of the human nature is that which transcends simplistic libertarianism to embrace complete individualism and Marxism. This assumption has driven the American economy to be guided by the urge to grow bigger, richer, and more powerful than any other country in the global sphere. This individualistic Marxist tendency has also largely integrated itself among individuals within the state, where each person works towards amassing as much wealth as is economically feasible (Stroll, & Popkin, 2014). While this trend may not be viewed by communists as a concept that serves the sole purpose of economics, that is solving the problems of humans, it has largely helped the American economy to grow rapidly to surpass that of other powerful states such as the United Kingdom.

On the basis of family and marriage, the process philosophy has had unimaginable effects. Social theorists argue that the basic purpose of life of a human’s is to raise a family, and form strong social ties, guided by principles of care, love, and respect (Stroll, & Popkin, 2014). This concept views the human life as that which exists in a circular form; one is born, grows up, marries, and dies. This argument puts the concept of marriage at the pinnacle of the circle of human life, without which the continuum cannot exist. Traditionally, marriages were respected, and historians record that the number of divorce cases was minimal. However, as the society progresses, America has witnessed skyrocketing instances of divorce cases, where the average period people spend in marriages is estimated at five years (Stanlick, 2013). Notably, it is not only the marriage institution that has been affected. People are no longer interested in siring children, instead, the moral role of grownups of childbearing has been commercialized, and child adoption is the order of the day.

Amid all these developments, one wonders how the process philosophy comes in. Well, it is understandable that the existence of human beings, and their respective roles in the society is guided by the natural ontological principles of nature (Stroll, & Popkin, 2014). However, the perspective of this natural mandate has since shifted, thereby experiencing a complete paradigm shift, which is only explained by the concept of the process philosophy. It is arguable that humans have applied this principle in justifying their very existence, realities in life, and their reason for living. As this perspective continues to change, so does the behaviour of the American society.

In conclusion, it is imperative to note that the process philosophy has appreciably been significant in shaping the American society, with specific emphasis on the economic and social aspects. While the interrelationship among the concepts above can only be vaguely established, a critical analysis reveals a clear pattern of influence, which has remained systematic since the historical periods.

References

Hausman, D. M. (2008). The Philosophy of Economics : An Anthology. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Stanlick, N. A. (2013). American Philosophy : The Basics. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge.

Stroll, A., & Popkin, R. H. (2014). Philosophy Made Simple. New York: Three Rivers Press.

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Analyzing Descriptive Data Assignment

Analyzing Descriptive Data
Analyzing Descriptive Data

Analyzing Descriptive Data

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Analyzing Descriptive Data

The two main reasons for conducting epidemiologic descriptive research are for scientific and administrative analysis. Scientists seek to find factors associated with health outcomes, while administrators use the data to generate plans for public health programs. Their joint efforts help promote public health and increase the likelihood of effective public health initiatives.

For this Discussion, please select a significant public health topic. Then address the following:

Describe your selected health topic by providing three to five characteristics related to person (e.g., age, race, sex, occupation, marital status), place, (political or geographic; macro or micro), and time (calendar time, seasonal variation). Be sure to report epidemiological data and not just general observations.

Identify how one could obtain the raw data to determine the descriptive epidemiology of your health condition (e.g., surveys, questionnaires, medical records, lab testing, etc.). Please discuss how the method(s) of ascertainment would influence the completeness of case identification as well as the case definition/diagnostic criteria used.

Post an example of a hypothesis about a possible association between an exposure and an outcome that could be generated from the descriptive epidemiological data you have provided.

Make sure to cite your resources and include a reference list in correct APA style format.

SAMPLE ANSWER

Analyzing Descriptive Data: Chlamydia

The selected public health topic is Chlamydia, a common infectious disease. Chlamydia is essentially a sexually transmitted infection (STI) whose cause is Chlamydia trachomatis, a bacterium (Beydoun et al., 2010). A person may get this health condition when he or she has unprotected sexual intercourse. If Chlamydia is not treated, it could result in grave long-lasting health problems for instance infertility and pelvic inflammatory disease. It is of note that this STI could cause infections in infants. There are tests as well as effective treatments for this health condition.

The characteristics which are related to an individual with Chlamydia are as follows: female, African-American, aged 22 years, and single. This female confessed to having 3 sexual partners and engages in unprotected sexual intercourse with them. The person’s geographic location is San Diego, California where she studies at a university there. In regards to the epidemiology of Chlamydia, this is the most prevalent STI in America. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) pointed out that 1, 422, 900 cases of this infection were reported in the year 2012, and roughly 2.8 million infections happen every year (2014). Many cases of Chlamydia are actually not reported since the majority of persons infected with this health condition are asymptomatic and thus, they do not go for testing.

This health condition is most widespread amongst people who are young. The prevalence of this disease among young persons who are aged between 14 to 24 who are sexually-active is almost 3 times the prevalence among people who are aged between 25 to 39 years (CDC, 2014). Roughly one in 15 females who are sexually active aged between 14 years to 19 years has this STI. Significant ethnic/racial differences exist in Chlamydia infection considering that the prevalence amongst African Americans is about 5 times that among Caucasians (CDC, 2014). Black women are the most affected by Chlamydia compared to any other group.

One could obtain raw data to determine the descriptive epidemiology of the selected health condition through the use of the following methods: (i) lab testing: screening is a very effective tool for identifying those persons who are infected by this disease. It also helps in providing treatment to those affected and in preventing the further spread of Chlamydia (Beydoun et al., 2009). By carrying out lab testing in people suspected to be having this health condition, one can get raw data to establish the descriptive epidemiology of Chlamydia. (ii) Medical records: medical records from health care organizations and government agencies such as the CDC are also reliable sources of raw data to determine the descriptive epidemiology of Chlamydia. These records provide complete and comprehensive information regarding this STI including the prevalence countrywide, by state, disparity by gender and race, as well as the reasons for disparity in prevalence. (iii) Self-report face-to-face interview: a sample of people could be interviewed one-on-one to find out the epidemiology of Chlamydia.

The methods of ascertainment would influence the completeness of case identification and case definition in that some data sources and data collection methods may be more dependable than others. The surveillance data gathered using different methods may vary in comparability, accuracy, quality, timeliness, as well as completeness of Chlamydia. It is of note that the information regarding the prevalence of Chlamydia reported by surveillance systems could differ significantly mainly because of differences in method of case ascertainment, case definition, as well as the kinds of data sources (Das, 2008). Hypothesis: the prevalence of Chlamydia is more common among non-Hispanic black women than in other groups.

References

Beydoun, H., Dail, J., Tamim, H., Ugwu, B., & M., Beydoun. (2010). Gender and Age Disparities in the Prevalence of Chlamydia Infection Among Sexually Active Adults in the United States. Journal of Women’s Health, 19(12): 2183-2190

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2014). Chlamydia – CDC Fact Sheet. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/std/chlamydia/STDFact-chlamydia-detailed.htm (Accessed September 11, 2014).

Das, B. (2008). A New Method to Evaluate the Completeness of Case Ascertainment. National Center for Biotechnology Information.

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Measuring Disease Frequency Essay Assignment

Measuring Disease Frequency
Measuring Disease Frequency

Measuring Disease Frequency

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Measuring Disease Frequency

In 2000, the crude mortality rate from all causes for Haiti (a very impoverished country) was 6.0 deaths per 1,000 persons. In contrast, the crude mortality rate from all causes for the United States was 10.4 deaths per 1,000 persons.

Then respond to the following:

What are some of the factors you would want to consider in assessing such a difference in mortality?

Discuss possible explanations as to why the crude mortality rate is lower in Haiti than in the United States.

SAMPLE ANSWER

Measuring Disease Frequency

Different countries experience different rates of mortality brought about by varied reasons. Crude mortality rate helps to estimate the number of deaths of people in mid-year. Comparing the crude mortality rate of various countries can help stakeholders to enhance the quality of health services to promote better care. This paper explores the factors contributing to differences in crude mortality rate of Haiti and USA as well on reasons why the crude mortality rate is lower in latter.

Statistics indicates that in 2000, crude mortality rate from all causes for Haiti was 6.0 deaths per 1000 persons compared to the U.S. that recorded 10.4 deaths per 1000 persons. Various factors may be considered in assessing these differences in crude mortality rate., one of which is gender. Women are believed to live longer, 5-10 years longer than men do.  Therefore, if the number of women is more than men in a country, then the rate or mortality is expected to be low. Another factor is the age of the population. A country with old population will record higher death rates compared to that with lower age population (Guang-zhen, 2010). The economic level of a country also determines the rate of crude mortality. In countries that have stable economies, the rate of mortality is low compared to those with unstable economies (Guang-zhen, 2010). This is because, established economies provides incentives and have easy accessibility to infrastructure to support better heath. Cultural beliefs also play a critical role in enhancing the quality of care and more so when it comes to the morbidity rates of a country. Some cultural practices and beliefs are outdated and impact negatively on the healthcare leading to more deaths.

In this context, therefore, one of the reasons that explain why the crude mortality rate is lower in Haiti than in the United States is the number of aging population.  U.S. has a high number of aging population compared to Haiti, and this contributes to greater level in this discrepancy. Most of older people are vulnerable because of their age compared to young people that make a larger percentage of Haiti.

Reference

Guang-zhen, W. (2010). Regional Variations in Maternal Mortality, Infant Mortality, and Infants with Low Birth Weight: Implications for Sub Sahara Africa and Gender-Sensitive Policies. Journal of African Policy Studies, 15(1):1-26.

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Analyzing Disease Frequency Assignment Paper

Analyzing Disease Frequency
Analyzing Disease Frequency

Analyzing Disease Frequency

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Analyzing Disease Frequency

When epidemiologists measure disease frequency, they analyze the incidence and prevalence of a disease. Incidence is the number of new cases of a disease in a particular population during a specific time period. This measure is useful when public health officials and epidemiologists are looking at the first occurrence of a disease. It is also important when comparing populations to determine disease risk.

For each problem, answer the following questions:

Name the appropriate measure of disease frequency that should be used in each scenario and justify its use (why that particular measure is the appropriate one).

The percentage of elderly men who are diagnosed with prostate cancer by age 80.

The number of mothers who die during the first year after giving birth due to complications from the birthing process.

On the last day of the school year, the number of freshman college students who are at least 15 pounds heavier than when they started the school year.
Calculate the appropriate disease frequency rate. Show your work.

The cumulative incidence rate in a population of 100,000 people where 9 new cases of disease were reported within 1 year.

The prevalence of a chronic disease on November 1st where 9 initial cases were found in September with an additional 45 cases reported in October of a small city with a population of 75,000 people.

The relative risk of death from exposure A if the mortality rate in the exposed group is 60 deaths per 1000 person-years and the mortality rate in the unexposed group is 20 per 1000 person-years.

The prevalence of a health condition is the existing number of cases of that condition in the population. State whether the factors listed below are likely to increase or decrease the prevalence of a health condition and Explain your reasoning.

Improvements in diagnostic criteria
Shorter duration of a health condition
Decrease in the incidence of the health condition
Loss of healthy people from the population for other reasons.

SAMPLE ANSWER

Disease Frequency

The appropriate measure of disease frequency

Part 1: Percentage of elderly men: The apt measure is gender and age specific proportion of persons who are affected. Gender and Age is the appropriate measure since the problem is prostate cancer that develops only in males and the age that has been indicated in this specific case is 80 years.

Part 2: For the number of mothers who die in the initial year after they have given birth because of complications from the birthing process, the apt measure of disease frequency is Attributable Proportion amongst the women who are exposed. This is the apt measure given that the exposure in this case is women who are expectant who pass away in the first 12 months after procreating and they have developed problems as a result of the process of giving birth.

Part 3: The apt measure is Attributable Proportion amongst the total population. In this situation, the freshman students who increased weight within a time period of 12 months are taken out of total freshman college students. It is of note that the total number of freshman students at the college comprised the denominator.

Calculation of the appropriate rate of disease frequency

Part 1: Cumulative incidence rate within a population of 100,000 persons in which nine new cases of illness were reported in one year. Cumulative incidence is understood as a measure of the occurrence of new cases of the health condition within the population (Kleinbaum, 2013). Cumulative incidence rate (R) in this problem is the proportion between new cases of the disease of interest and the individuals who are at risk. The denominator refers to the size (N) of the population that is not affected, while the numerator is understood as the number of newly affected people (A).

R = New cases (A) ÷ People at risk (N)

Thus in this problem, the cumulative incidence rate will be (9 ÷ 100,000) x 100% = 0.009%

Part 2: Prevalence (P) basically signifies the proportion of a given population which has the illness of interest at a given time, for instance on a particular day. To estimate this value, the number of cases or of existing people who are affected (C), is divided by the total number people within the population (N).

Prevalence (P) = Cases (C) / Number of People (N)

In this situation, the Prevalence (P) of a chronic illness on 1st November is 9 cases of the month of September plus 45 cases reported in the month of October (C) divide by (/) total number of people (N) which is 75,000

P = ? C = 54, N = 75,000

P = (54 ÷ 75,000) x 100% = 0.072%

Part 3: the relative risk of death from exposure A

Relative Risk (RR) or Risk Ratio is understood as the ratio of the occurrence of the death or disease amongst the people who are exposed and the occurrence amongst those persons who are not exposed (Bonita, 2009).

RR = occurrence amongst those exposed ÷ occurrence amongst unexposed

In this situation, the occurrence is 20/1,000 amongst those unexposed and 60/1,000 amongst those exposed. RR is thus 60 ÷ 20 = 3. What this implies is that the risk of death in the exposed group is 3 times greater than in the unexposed group.

Prevalence of a health condition

  1. Improvements in diagnostic criteria – likely to increase

When diagnostic criteria is improved, positive value will be increased. Therefore, diagnosis of the disease is carried out correctly and appropriate treatment is started. This will consequently lead to control of the health condition and in so doing decreases the number of cases as well as prevalence (Noordzij, 2010).

  1. Shorter duration of a health condition – likely to decrease

It is possible to have shorter duration of a health condition in either of 2 instances. First is where recuperation is very fast and it is no longer a case; and secondly where the likelihood of death from the health condition is extremely high and those who are affected with the illness face the threat of dying. In either of these 2 cases, the prevalence would reduce considering that prevalence is basically the number of old and new cases that exist at a given instance.

  • Decrease in the incidence of the health condition – likely to decrease

If there is a decrease in incidence, there will also be a decrease in prevalence given that prevalence is the product of duration of the disease and incidence.

  1. Loss of healthy people from the population for other reasons – likely to increase

This will certainly increase the prevalence of the disease since the loss of healthy persons basically means an increased proportion of persons who are at risk of getting the health condition. More number of persons who are at risk signifies that more persons are affected by the disease leading to a rise in the number of patients, thus increasing the prevalence of the health condition (Kleinbaum, 2013).

References

Bonita, R. (2009). Basic Epidemiology. Cambridge, MA: Penguin Publishers.

Kleinbaum, D. G. (2013). Measures of Disease Frequency. New York City, NY: Springer Publishers.

Noordzij, M. (2010). Measures of Disease Frequency: Prevalence and Incidence. National Center for Biotechnology Information.

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