Simons Theory of Bounded Rationality and Defense Order Instructions: Question 1
Theories play a vitally important role in guiding research and organizing and making sense of research findings.
In spite of the great importance of theory-building and theory testing within your field of specialization, there is no generally accepted conception of what a theory is. Because your dissertation must contribute to theory, you must have a clear understanding of the variety of conceptions of theory, types of theories, and ways of contributing to theory and be able to justify how, exactly, your study contributes to theory.
Part 1
Using Gelso (2006), Harlow (2009), Stam, H. (2007, 2010), Wacker (1999), and five additional peer-reviewed articles from your specialization, discuss scholarly views on the nature and types of theory. Compare and contrast at least three views of what constitutes a theory, including the view you will use in Part 3 of this question. Be sure to distinguish theory from related concepts, such as hypothesis, paradigm, model, and concept.
Part 2
Using Ellis & Levy (2008), Harlow, E. (2009), and five additional peer-reviewed articles, review the scholarly literature on the relationship between theory and research and the ways research (quantitative and qualitative) can contribute to theory. Discuss at least three ways research can contribute to theory.
Part 3
Pick a theory (in one of the views of what constitutes a theory that you identified in Part 1) of current interest directly related to the topic area of your dissertation. A theory is currently of interest if there are articles published on it in the past five years. Using at least 10 published, peer-reviewed research articles:
1. Explain how the theory adds or may add to our understanding of your field and/or research topic.
2. Discuss and analyze the literature on two areas of controversy or unanswered questions related to the theory.
Question #2
Your dissertation research must contribute to theory. Your research and the theory to which it contributes may or may not have a practical benefit or application. There is no doubt, however, that there is a theory in your dissertation topic area that does have a practical application.
Part 1
Referencing at least five peer-reviewed journal articles or scholarly books, discuss views on the relationship between theory and application or practice. How can a theory guide or inform practice? What are the issues involved in translating theory into practice? Be sure to keep in mind the various conceptions of theory you discussed in Question 1.
Part 2
Referencing at least five peer-reviewed journal articles, fully describe a theory of current interest in your topic area. A theory is currently of interest if there are articles published on it in the past five years. This theory may or may not be the same as the one you examined in Question 1, Part 3. Describe a current view of the theory, not the founder’s view or a classic view. Your answer should be no more than three pages long.
Part 3
Identify at least five scholarly articles (published in the last 5 years) that address how the theory you discussed in Part 2 has actually been applied. (Draw on your response to Part 1 in order to define what you mean by an application of a theory to an actual problem or situation.) Critically evaluate the appropriateness of the uses to which the theory has been applied. Consider, for example: Are the applications premised upon an accurate understanding of the theory and its scope? Do the applications “go beyond” what the theory claims? Is the reasoning linking application and theory sound?
Question #3
The ability to read, understand, critique, and integrate research studies and to design a study to address a gap in the research literature is a vital tool for a doctoral student. As you write your dissertation, you may be reading hundreds of studies, many of which you will evaluate as part of a coherent literature review.
Select five empirical articles from peer-reviewed journals that:
• you consider critical to your understanding of your area of dissertation research
• all address a particular phenomenon and attempt to contribute to theory about it
Part 1
1. Describe each study, including:
• the research problem, questions, or hypotheses
• the research purpose
• type of design and elements of the design (e.g., sample, data analysis, operationalization of constructs)
• threats to validity and if and how they were addressed
• the findings and their implications
2. Critically evaluate each study: Does the author make a compelling case for the meaning and significance of the findings?
Part 2
Write a literature review that explains what is known and not known about the phenomenon based on a critical evaluation of the five studies
Part 3
Develop a research question that addresses one of the unknowns you identified in Part 2 and sketch a quantitative or qualitative study that can answer the question about what is unknown and contribute to theory (in some sense of theory you discuss in Question 1).
Address:
• the research purpose
• type of design and elements of the design (e.g., sample, the type of data you need to collect and how you will collect it, data analysis)
• the strengths and weaknesses of your envisioned design and methods
• quantitative: threats to validity and how your design will address them
• quantitative: the constructs you will measure and what you will do in order to determine how to operationalize them (you need not identify specific measures)
• qualitative: your means of ensuring the quality of your findings
• justification for why your chosen design and methods are more appropriate for your research question than alternatives you have considered
• your methods of data analysis
• how the data you collect will enable you to answer your research question and contribute to theory
Draw on the additional resources for this course for guidance in understanding the concepts (e.g., internal validity, threats to validity, and operationalization) needed to address this question.
Question #4
As you know, scientific research must be conducted in accordance with ethical principles. The ethical principles of research are defined in:
Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct
Standard 8: Research and Publication
http://www.apa.org/ethics/code/index.aspx
The National Academy Of Sciences, National Academy Of Engineering, and Institute Of Medicine Of The National Academies have a more detailed and comprehensive set of ethical guidelines for scientific research:
Committee on Science, Engineering, and Public Policy (U.S.), National Academy of Sciences (U.S.), National Academy of Engineering., & Institute of Medicine (U.S.). (2009) On being a scientist: A guide to responsible conduct in research, (3rd ed.). Washington, D.C: National Academies Press.
http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=12192
Write a paper in which you discuss how you will ensure that all aspects of your doctoral research, from literature review to conducting research, to writing the dissertation manuscript will be done with care and integrity and will meet the ethical standards of scientific research. Reference the two publications above and at least five additional peer-reviewed articles.
You must justify all the steps you will take to ensure the ethical integrity of your dissertation project and not simply describe standard practice. You must show that you have your own clear set of ethical principles and that you know how to apply them to your work. You must do more than just paraphrase ethical guidelines. You must explain specifically how you will apply published ethical guidelines and concepts to what you will do in your research (as you envision it at this point).
Be sure to address the following:
• Plagiarism
• Risk assessment
• Informed consent
• Privacy and confidentiality
• Data handling and reporting
• Mistakes and negligence
• Working with a Mentor
• Northcentral University requirements for IRB approval
Conclude your paper with your thoughts on the following statement:
Ethical scientific researchers have a commitment to all who are touched by their research—participants who share their lives and time, mentors and advisors, reviewers, future readers, and supporters and cheerleaders on the journey—to take care and do their work well.
Special Note:
I am conducting my dissertation on Simon’s Theory of Bounded Rationality and the Department of Defense.
Simons Theory of Bounded Rationality and Defense Sample Answer
Simon’s Theory of Bounded Rationality and the Department of Defense
Comprehensive Doctoral Review Examination
Presented in Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for Degree
Doctor of Homeland Security and Leadership
School of ……………………………………………………………..
Northcentral University
Date of Submisssion
Question 1
Using Gelso (2006), Harlow (2009), Stam, H. (2007), 2010), Wacker (1999), and five additional peer reviewed articles from your specialization, discuss scholarly views on the nature and types f theory. Compare and contrast at least three views of what constitutes a theory, including the view you will use in Part 3 of this question. Be sure to distinguish theory from related concepts, such as hypothesis, paradigm, model, and concept.
Theory
In order to comprehend the components of a theory and how it is related to research is without any doubts a daunting task and has undeniably become an issue of debate not only among scholars as well as seasoned researchers rendering a considerable number of doctoral students feel a sense of incompetence and confusion. According to Kiley (2015), comparison and contrast of the definitions of a theory have also contributed to heightening of the difficulty and confusion in making distinction between a theory and research. However, irrespective of the prevailing confusion, there is a universal agreement among scholars that theory is at the center of any research; whereas a contention is raised by other scholars that in real world theory have no meaningful application in guiding research (Wacker, 1998). This paper evaluates the role of theory and its imperativeness in research by exploring and identifying varied scholarly arguments as well as views. In addition, a discussion of how research contributes to theory will be provided in this paper alongside tangible examples theory has being contributing to research as well as the homeland security and leadership field. Theory is undoubtedly the integral constituent in any scholarly research mainly by providing guidelines in addition to enabling the relationship between the two to be explored by researchers (Harlow, 2009). However, despite the fact that the importance of theory in guiding research has been recognized, a consensus has not yet been arrived at among scholars with regards to the specific components that constitute a theory.
What Constitutes Theory
According to Fischer, Winter & Wortmann (2010), the word theory has been derived and anchored in a Greek verb meaning contemplation. Irrespective of lack of consensus among scholars in terms of the finer points concerning the definition and constituents of a theory, a universally agreed position has been in the mainstream scholarly discussion basic constituents of a theory by underscoring that, a theory plays a vital role in providing descriptions to a phenomenon and the interactions of involved variables that subsequently follow as scholars and researchers strive to predict or explain a scenario. Thus, as attempts are made to provide finer details and clarifications with regards to theory, varied views by different scholars including Gelso (2006), Harlow (2009) and Stam (2007, 2010) concerning the purpose of a theory and its basic constituents, as well as the desirable characteristics of a good theory are explored.
A theory can be regarded to be a set of generalizations that have been grouped together may be because they show significant relationship or indicate the possibility of new observations, which have the possibility of being properly packaged or organized prior to empirical testing to enable succinct details to be derived and allow the phenomenon of interest to be predicted or explained (Galtung, 1985). According to Littlejohn (1989), a theory should be considered as any attempt to provide an explanation or representation of an issue with regards to a real world phenomenon or scenario. In addition, another argument posits that a theory is a way in which knowledge is systematically organized to enable its actual application to provide solution to a myriad of real life problems that continue to affect people across the world on a day-to-day basis (Fendt & Sachs, 2008; Ng & Hase, 2008). According to Ng & Hase (2008) and Fendt & Sachs (2008), grounded theory has for a relatively long period of time been playing an imperative role in guiding research methodologies and qualitative approaches aimed at developing theory in a wide range of academic fields. Gay & Weaver (2011) emphasize that when the complexity of a theory is considered, a confusion or lack of consensus has been dominant with regards to succinctly delineating between a theory and what it constitutes, constructs of a theory as well as the approach to be adopted in a theorizing process. However, it is imperative to make sure there is differentiation between a theory and its associated terminologies including paradigms, hypotheses, concepts as well as models.
Malmi and Granlund (2009) stated that a paradigm plays an important in providing a framework in which of worldviews as well as beliefs are represented, and it is usually used to provide definitions of values as well as methods and/or boundaries that ought to be adhered to or complied with in research. According to Gay & Weaver (2011), paradigms are also fundamental in outlining the definitions of issues which are of importance or not as well as highlighting things that are possible or not through research, an indication that they can be compared to overarching philosophies in the presentation of an extended theoretical view of the research phenomenon under consideration. In contrast, a hypothesis is regarded as an educated guess and its subsequent proposition with regards to an envisaged outcome about a phenomenon on basis of existing knowledge or observations (Fischer, Winter & Wortmann, 2010). National Academy of Sciences (1999) provides a typical consideration of a theory and stated that it consists of substantiated explanations that are strongly unified concerning a set of proven hypotheses. Furthermore, there has been a general agreement that a hypothesis must have the ability of ensuring that a particular component of a theory is subjected to specific testing and subsequent representation of the results, while a theory lacks this ability. According to Gelso (2006), a theory is crucial in facilitating extensive explanation of an issue under consideration while the focal point of a hypothesis is considerably narrow. Thus, a theory plays an imperative role in enabling hypothesizing of a phenomenon; whereas a consideration of a hypothesis involves delving into specific testing and explanation of a certain proposition predicted or forecasted with regards to the issue under consideration.
On the other hand, Malmi and Granlund (2009) reiterated that a model plays an important role in ensuring that a theory is constructed, and it is usually represented in a written form or graphically to provide an explanation or illustration of a theory either in its entirety or partially. Therefore, it can be clearly stated that elucidation of a theory components can not be achieved through the model, even though it allows for an approach or method for the exploration of a theory (Gelso, 2009; Malmi and Granlund, 2009; Burgelman, 2011). For instance, under circumstances when the research concerned with a theory guiding a research on developing nuclear weapons of mass destruction, it is imperative to construct a molecular model to act as a method to be used as a guide of the research (Gelso, 2009). Throughout this kind of research the model that is constructed to facilitate it can play a vital role in guiding the investigations of how atoms are positions in the molecules as well as their subsequent interactions; however, when a model is singly used it becomes highly difficult to provide explanations of the positioning as well as interactions of atom in the molecules (Malmi and Granlund, 2009).
According to Geslo (2009), a theoretical concept provides the fundamental building block which forms the basis on which the theory is constructed. Furthermore, Malmi and Granlund (2009) emphasize that a concept is a vital strategy in which explanations of the descriptions and/or interpretations of the data collected during a research, as well as providing literally comparing issues or things under which the research is based or evaluations the subsequent interactions of these issues or things. For example, when education is considered as the concept providing an overall description of an individual’s learning process. Gelso (2006) also reiterates that concepts are undoubtedly the broad ideas which have been subjected to testing within a theoretical framework to enable development of a new theory, especially on basis of newly developed or an existing conceptual framework.
Nevertheless, as we strive to provide an answer to the question concerning what constitutes a theory, it imperative to note that considerations are not straightforwardly or simply presented depending on various views or arguments propagated by various scholars (Gelso, 2006; Harlow, 2009). This is attributable to the fact that, different scholars have over time held or proposed varied views with regards to the actual components that should be considered in the definition of a theory, especially in cases where the constituents of a theory are discussed in more details. According to Gelso (2008), it is always imperative when providing descriptions for a theory to consider various combinations in terms of different constructs such as descriptive ability, explanatory power, heuristic value, testability, integration, parsimony, comprehensiveness, delimitation, as well as clarity. Geslo (2008) in his assertions underscore his believe in undertaking refinement of the actual description of a theory by carrying out further research and ensuring that the constructs are succinctly understood (Gelso, 2008). On the other hand, Harlow (2009) suggested a contrasting approach whereby a theory can be applied in the determination of a law as well as a set of laws. Harlow (2009) used this basis to provide four constructs of theories which are distinct namely: (a) definition of the theory, (b) the relationship between the variables, (c) a domain within which the theory can be applied, and finally (d) claims based on facts or predictions which are specific.
In addition, when considering the process of developing discussions with regards to theoretical formulations, it is has been revealed that a great divide exists between the varied views held by scholars. Stam (2007) noted that three views through which a theory is affect, which have for a relatively long period of time significantly influenced the process of constructing theories and they are (a) instrumentalism, : (b) reductionism, and (c) realism views. These views are discussed in details to explicitly explain their significance.
According to Stam (2007) and Burgelman (2011) reductionism concerns the view of a theory in which complex systems are considered as a composition of the total of respective systems or parts of a theory. In order to understand the reductionism approach, it is important to individually examine each part of the system singly and in an independent manner (Stam 2000; Burgelman, 2011). As a result, reductionism plays an essential role in the attempts to ease the approach in which complex systems can be clearly understood by independently studying components and/or parts of a system singularly (Stam 2000; Nadler, 2004; Burgelman, 2011). Thus, through a process in which individual components and/or parts of a system are broken down, reductionism approach is adopted in an attempt through which its proponents envisages to realize new perspectives through which a system can be viewed and subsequently the interactions between its individual components and/or parts.
According to Nadler (2004), reductionism approach has been widely used making it an inevitable method to consider because of its imperativeness in providing a framework through which the four principles that guide its application. For instance, this approach underscores the fact that every thing and/or system within a theory is separable into its individual components as well as parts. Nadler (2004) further emphasize that the reductionist approach enables an option for substitutes or alternatives to each of the part or component of the theory which has been separated from the respective systems, as well as partial solutions to certain problems in an attempt to devise an appropriate method of solving the problem in its entirety. In addition, the consideration of entity from the perspective of a theory refers to the nothing more than the total of a theory components or parts (Nadler, 2004). Therefore, reductionists are in the forefront in the advocacy for the need to be singly considering each component or part of a system.
Malmi and Granlund (2009) in their instrumentalism approach of understanding a system stated that theory instruments usefulness is inherent in the real life view or perspective towards gaining a clear understanding of a theory in order to pinpoint the best definition of a theory solely based on nothing more than the identified instruments. According to Malmi and Granlund (2009), it is essential to evaluate a theory based on how it can be applied in a phenomenon prediction as well as explanation rather than its ability to be used in depicting an actual or a real world situation. A good example for consideration may include an acupuncture examination, where a number of people may possibly end up swearing as a result of the effects of acupuncture while in real life they may not be in concurrence with principles expressed in such an art, including the Ki energy. This means that instrumentalists have a higher likelihood of holding the opinion that, it does not manner how a system works as long as it is working properly.
Stam (2007) also provided the realism approach, which over the recent past has significantly expanded to become very wide and influential in the process of developing a theory. This approach is the most recent and without any doubt the most complex to easily decipher since realists are for the opinion that the world descriptions can be possibly done primarily on basis of scientific concepts taking into consideration the assumptions that the world has a real perspective and/or view, which distinctly or independently exist in absolute disregard of the perceptions inherent in people. As a result, it is a common trend for realists to hold assertions that someone has the possibility of making reliable as well as credible predictions phenomena which are not observable (Klaes and Sent, 2005). For instance, a good example on which realism approach in actual application concerns the heliocentric theory of Copernicus in which he proposed that the Earth revolved around the sun located at the center of the solar system despite the fact that by then it wasn’t possible to observe, test and verify or validate the phenomenon using the tools used nowadays such as telescopes. This approach indicates that both theory and research are intertwined and must coexist together in order to make it important to explain how the two are related as well as the contribution of research to theory and how the latter influences the former.
Relationship between Research and Theory and How Research Contributes to Theory
According to Ellis & Levy (2008), a theory that has been constructed and widely accepted by a considerable number of scholars in many fields should fulfill the main purpose of both predicting and elucidating a phenomenon. Harlow (2009) emphasize that a theory should be used in the conceptualization and succinctly explaining a trend of observations that occurs in a systematic manner with regards to certain phenomena as well as the subsequent interactions which may sometimes be complex. Ellis & Levy (2008) note that research usually acts as the foundation on which the processes that are integral in the system occur thereby informing the data collection and analysis is conducted to aid generation of new knowledge. According to Harlow (2009), the reductionism approach of the interplay between theory and research is fundamental in describing the relationship inherent between theory and research.
Furthermore, this approach can be expanded to cover the wider conceptualization of the cyclical process through which it is possible to test theoretical ideas against new data as it emerges or that which has been in existence. Consequently, a room is also provided for the ideas to be reframed and retested in order to verify and validate the observations beyond any doubt or uncertainty through research in order to enable confirmation of the conclusions arising from the entire research (Harlow, 2009). This means that a universally accepted method to approach the task of establishing this relationship is crucial. As a result, a concurrence is observed between the ideas or arguments presented by Gay and Weaver (2011) with those raised by Harlow (2009) as well as Ellis and Levy (2008) by asserting that there is need for increased tendency for research knowledge to progressively contribute to the construction of new theories based on an existing theory or by adding knowledge to an existing lexicon of facts. As a result, definition of the problem or phenomenon under investigation should at all time act as the connecting point between theoretical construction and research. Harlow (2009) noted that, a theory should always be tested and retested for verification and validation through the strategy provided for in the research.
Since time immemorial researchers have been using two main research methods or strategies to test and validate proposed theories, which are the qualitative as well as quantitative research methods. Creswell (2009) noted that in empirical studies quantitative research is usually the appropriate approach to investigate a phenomenon or an issue of interest with assistance of the necessary mathematical and statistical techniques to aid data analysis. On the other hand, according to Du & Kamakura (2012) qualitative research is also commonly used, especially when conducting research in social sciences and the qualitative research strategy strives to facilitate collection of data which is vital in enabling subsequent understanding of the interactions observed between variables in a more succinct manner and elucidate the complexities inherent in them. These two research strategies have been widely embraced as the most commonly used approaches to guide research and their contribution to the design and development as well as improvement of new and existing theories respectively has been significantly varied, especially with regards to the data generated (Crotty, 2003).
According to Aliaga and Gunderson (2005), the choice of a research method is greatly determined by type of data that a researcher wants to collect, whereby quantitative research enables for the investigation of a phenomenon by allowing numerical data to be collected subsequent to conducting the necessary statistical analysis and decipher meaningful insights from the gathered information. According to Tsoukas and Knudsen (2002), quantitative methods of analyzing the collected data analysis allows its conversion into measurable and quantifiable form consequently making it easy to categorize or group the collected data in a more explicit manner. Aliaga and Gunderson (2005) further reiterate that conceptualizing the grouping or categorization of collected data is comparable to the way in which computing devices convert entered data into binary constructs for quick processing and analysis. When the collected data is organized into groups or categories, the researcher is likely to apply complex data sets as well as simple and advance analytic techniques to analyze the data and decipher any meaningful insights that could answer specific research questions about the phenomenon under investigation (Aliaga & Gunderson, 2005; Gephart, 1999). Quantitative methods of conducting research have been playing an imperative role in contributing to theory, and this nexus has been attributed to the fact that quantitative research allows adoption of quantifiable approaches through which the collected data can be viewed, processed, assessed, analyzed, and reported (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). Du & Kamakura (2012) underscore the fact that, the contribution of quantitative research strategies to development of theory has been attributed to the virtue of being specific and measurable subsequently enabling spotting of trends and correlations.
Alternatively, Creswell (2009) emphasized that qualitative research strategies plays a vital role in enabling information to be gathered from subjects in order to ensure the observed behaviors or interactions are well understood. The core question that should always be considered when conducting qualitative research concerns how the study is to be started as opposed to predicting the envisaged outcomes (Creswell, 2009; Strauss & Corbin, 1998). Through this approach the researcher implements the appropriate techniques to ensure the devised questions are answered in order to succinctly understand the manner in which the observed variables of a phenomenon under investigation relate or why they occur (Creswell, 2009). According to Doz (2011), emphasis on using qualitative research should not be underestimated as researchers strive to obtain more insights and meaningful knowledge with regards the subjects picked through the sampling method outlined in the research methodology.
There are various ways in which qualitative research has led to the development of theory including its utilization to succinctly describe an observed phenomenon as well as generating deeper elucidation (Eisenhardt, 1989). Considering that an iterative process is usually the norm in developing a theory, qualitative research strategies have the potential of ensuring that key concepts underlying the construction of the theory are refined in addition to providing additional insights into the obtained results (Doz, 2011). According to Du & Kamakura (2012), the testing and retesting of a theory for its verification and validation is also carried out through qualitative methods of research by embracing alternative theoretical lenses to approach the phenomenon investigation and evaluation in order to gather more insights and information on how variables of the phenomenon relate and interact with each other. Eisenhardt (1989) emphasized that construction of novel theories can also be achieved through adoption of case studies, which are in most cases part of qualitative research methods.
Generally, various methods through which research either quantitative or qualitative has being contributing to the construction or development of theory. For instance, it is only on basis of research observations through which theory formulation can subsequently lead to construction of a theory (Doz, 2011). Du & Kamakura (2012) emphasized that it is only through these research methods through which a researcher can either validate or refute a theory through further evaluations. Therefore, it is also imperative to note that these research methods are critical in making sure that more insights concerning a theory are revealed subsequently allowing the theory to be modified or improved by refining it further (Doz, 2011; Du & Kamakura, 2012).
Example of How a View of Theory Adds to the Field and My Chosen Dissertation Topic
From the three views of a theory aforementioned a previous section of this question (Part 1) as they were proposed by Stam (2007) namely instrumentalism, reductionism, as well as realism; through careful consideration reductionism view has been determined to be one likely to lead to a greater extent of contribution of the study proposed in this dissertation. This is attributable to the fact that, reductionism view has for a while enjoyed wide application in guiding decision making process in a wide range of academic fields (Stam, 2000). The proposed dissertation topic of this research study is, “Simon’s Theory of Bounded of Rationality and the Department of Defense.” Considering the significance of decision making process in choosing appropriate military actions, the findings derived from this research are likely to be used to guide informed and rationally bound decisions as well as additional knowledge in my area of research or field of study on basis of reductionism paradigm. As a result, the proposed study has a potential of advancing knowledge through exploration of the effects of leadership styles on decision making in military (Department of Defense).
The research in this dissertation topic will adopt qualitative research strategy as well as a reductionist research method to make sure that in-depth understanding is obtain with regards to how Simon’s Theory of Bounded Rationality is used to inform decisions made by the Department of Defense. Applying reductionism research methods in conducting this research study is an imperative strategy that will be very helpful in providing additional information and important insights into the effects attributable to decisions made by the Department of Defense based on the Simon’s Theory of Bounded Rationality. Its will be essential to examine this component individually in order to shed more light with regards to specific aspects of these components of Department of Defense decisions as well as the possible information to be added concerning the effects of such specific decisions, as well as leading to additional body of knowledge in homeland security and leadership. The utilization of reductionism as the research method of conducting this study will also provide a chance of exploring military decisions made with regards to Homeland Security and Leadership in the Department of Defense based on Simon’s Theory of Bounded Rationality.
Despite the fact that, reductionism is without any doubt the most appropriate strategy to approach in order to ensure that the proposed study is effectively addressed, this view has not been spared from extensive criticism. For instance, two specific issues have been raised with regards to reductionism view that ought to be keenly considered by researchers before embarking on conducting the research (Stam, 2000; Nadler, 2004). In particular, it is important to bear in mind that all things or systems constituting a theory can be reduced to the specific components or parts which make them up. In addition, reductionism has been revealed not to be an appropriate method of approaching a research when the phenomenon under consideration consists of social systems which are complex or extensively interrelated, especially those involving feedback loops or intertwined relationships.
Simons Theory of Bounded Rationality and Defense Conclusion
To conclude, it is important to state that research and theory concepts are without any doubt far reaching and wide irrespective of the fact that they are closely related. It is also imperative to note that a universal agreement on many aspects of a theory has not been there, and varied views have all along been expressed by different scholars concerning the nature of theory or research as well as their subsequent applications, especially when research across varied academic fields is considered. However, a somewhat consensus has been observed among scholars from different academic fields concerning the imperativeness of the cycle involved in developing a theory as well as the paradigm in which theory coexist with research.
Furthermore, the vital role played by theory cannot be underestimated especially with regards to providing a strategy through which interactions of variables of a phenomenon under investigation can be predicted; whereas research is crucial in facilitating the chosen theory to be tested and discover new observations or gain more insights. As a result, the fact that theory and research are interrelated is undeniably the dogma guiding generation of additional knowledge through discoveries as well as revelation of more information about a phenomenon. Thus, it is inevitable for researchers to rely on this interrelation and coexistence of theory and research to advance existing knowledge across academic fields.
In most cases the demand for more research has often been triggered by social needs that are increasingly becoming dynamic; hence, requiring a method of exploring them and possibly come up with solutions. Curiosity of researchers has also led to development or discovery of new research methods to gather the data required to solve some problems. Through the adoption of the new research techniques and/or methods, researchers gain new knowledge which go along way in advancing an existing theory or develop a new one. As a result, doctoral students must always remain vigilant in their attempts to approach research based on varied theoretical concepts in order to ensure their potential is optimally utilized in solving a prevailing problem or generating further new knowledge.
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Question 2
Referencing at least five peer-reviewed journal articles or scholarly books, discuss views on the relationship between theory and application or practice. How can a theory guide or inform practice? What are the issues involved in translating theory into practice? Be sure to keep in mind the various conceptions of theory you discussed in Question 1.
Practical Application
A doctoral student should be able to make some contribution to theory by conducting substantial research based on an existing theory or developing a new theory. This means that all studies carried out within a particular field of study should add to the body of existing knowledge or ensure there is identification of knowledge gaps. This question strives to discuss how theory and its application in practice are related as well as procedures involved in the translation of theoretical concepts into practice. A current theory of interest (Theory of bounded rationality or behavioral theory developed by Simon Herbert A in 1967) will be discussed subsequent to highlighting some of its actual applications.
Views on the Relationship Between theory and practice or application
With regards to practice, a theory is considered as the categorization of knowledge in a methodic and systemic way likely to be functionally applied in decision making as well as solving problems. According to Stam (2007), a theory is imperative in providing information within a theoretical framework conceptualized using mathematical terms if the application of the theory is in the natural sciences as well as logical terms the application of the theory is in the social sciences. According to Stam (2007), a theory encompasses a set of organized information concerning specific themes which have the possibility of been used to provide predictions, explanations as well as helping to gain more insights with regards to phenomenon under investigation. Typically, theories are an imperative component of informed practice, and the manner in which they are applied in practice varies depending on environment and nature of research. Creswell (2009) stated that a theory helps to elucidate a certain scenario in a particular environment setting with an objective of ensuring that practical problems are addressed.
Theory and practice reciprocally relate to each other, and this relationship is attributed to the fact that, the practice is incapable of standing on its own without the necessary theoretical concepts as the basis of informing research as well as guiding conceptualization of ideas (Stam, 2007; Stam, 2010). Despite the fact that during research data can be gathered, without a theoretical framework a void is created making it impossible to explain the behavior or interactions observed in the variables (Vickery & Thomson, 2004). In addition, theory and practice relates in a symbiotic manner where when one is improved there is also a corresponding improvement on the other (Creswell, 2009; Vickery & Thomson, 2004). As a result, this nexus implies that an advancement of a theory from its previous state, an improvement in its practical application is also likely to be achieved. From this perspective, the three theoretical conceptualizations with regards to the relationship between theory and practical applications are: instrumentalism, reductionism, as well as realism. These theoretical conceptualizations provide descriptions as well as explanations to abstract ideas concerning the phenomenon under investigation (Vickery & Thomson, 2004).
Furthermore, the conceptualization of ideology is defined as a psychological effect which is likely to influence the behavior of human beings either indirectly or directly (Vickery & Thomson, 2004). The behavior of human beings has a tendency of been influenced by changes in the patterns of how they interact or influence the thinking of people. According to Stam (2007), prospective or retrospective thinking with regards to application of a theory may cause people to think that advanced or less advanced or backward in comparison with other people. This means that there is no particular which in totality is objective (Bedaub & Humphreys, 2008).
How Theory Informs/Guides Practice
Across professions, practice is to a significant degree guided by the underlying theory whose determination occurs through the recommendations as well as requirements of a specific outcome that is envisaged about a phenomenon. Through such a process, the prediction of outcomes’ role is assumed by the theory (Wacker, 1989). According to Wacker (1989), extensively researched theories are utilized in the guiding and providing information concerning practical application of the obtained findings (Wacker, 1989). Alternatively, the less significant theories help in specific environment settings, especially in the role of behaviors as well as interactions of such behaviors which are manifested by a group of subjects within a phenomenon under investigation (Wacker, 1989). Rappoport (2004) stated that theory is imperative in informing or guiding practice through the insights it provided into contextualization of behaviors as well as generation of alternatives based on varying conditions. Thus, theories are imperative because of their role in guiding practice with regards to functionality, development, as well as enabling succinct understanding through the insights they provide (Rappoport, 2004; Wacker, 1989).
Issues Involved in Translating Theory into Practice
The process in which theory is translated into practice is marked by challenges that are often difficult to overcome. For instance, a theory plays a vital role in elucidating the manner in which research data is going to be gathered; processed; coded; analyzed; categorized; stored; and retrieved; while at the same time making sure that a data analysis framework exists. In consideration of the fact that learning in different fields is interrelated to others, there has been exhibition of dynamism of the manner in which intended behaviors are displayed by humans meaning that there are also changes in the outcomes anticipated from the application of theory in practice. In course of translating theory into practical applications, human errors are a determinant factor of the extent of success achieved. This is attributable to the fact that, the tools and techniques used in the translation process are operated by human beings. Additionally, stereotypes and biasness of the researcher can also significantly influence the process of translating theory into practice across many fields. For instance, individual biases with regards to certain field of study including gender, race, and marital status have been attributed to considerable effects on the success of this process.
Furthermore, it is also important to note that the manner in which theories are premised has a potential to affect the process to a greater extent, especially when definitions and explanations of the system are partially done. This means that an influence on one component or part leads to an influence of the system as a whole. On the other hand, arguments or views held by some theorists have been focused on the manner in which elucidation of the system has been done, especially with regards to the linguistic aspect which may lead to varied definitions and explanations subsequently leading to differential translations (Bedaub & Humphreys, 2008).
A Theory of Current Interest
Simon’s theory of bounded rationality is of significant essence in facilitating the decision making and problem solving processes. The complexity of the process of strategic decision making entails the need to solve messy and difficult problems which confront individuals as well as leaders on a day-to-day basis, and which do not have easy, quick solutions. As a result, specific theories or paradigms ought to be used at all times in order to facilitate the decision making process so that, the most favorable and appropriate alternative from a vast pool of alternatives is picked. This is very imperative since the selection of better alternatives in the process of making decisions always results to favorable consequences.
There are varied paradigms or theories which have been used in the process of making decisions as well as in the conceptualization of strategic decisions. A number of such theories or paradigms which are well known and have received wide application include: rational theory, mixed scanning theory, bounded rationality theory, incremental theory, bargaining theory, garbage theory, polis theory, as well as participative theory. These theories are applied to make decisions on varied situations, and decision makers ought to evaluate the environment in order to succinctly determine a theory which is most appropriate for application in the process of making a decision depending on the prevailing variables as well as conditions.
The rational theory has been widely applied in making economic decisions and borrows heavily from the economic theory, and has often been termed as the rational comprehensive approach to decision making process mainly because it aims to maximize efficiency through selection of the best alternative within a vast pool of options on basis of specific criteria. In particular, the rational theory approach in the decision making approach strictly follows a well laid down process made up of six major steps namely: 1) definition of goals, 2) identification of alternatives, 3) calculation of consequences, 4) deciding on the most favorable and appropriate alternative based on the benefits to costs ratio calculated, 5) monitoring of the implementation, and 6) finally beginning the process again.
The application of rational theory is making decisions has become famous because it is very easy and attractive to embrace due to its simplicity meaning through its simple procedure, the formulation seems to make sense intuitively by providing a structured way of addressing a certain problem at hand and arriving at a solution. The rational theory approach seems to impose clarity and certainty to problem solving process which is often not favorable for complex problems like the ones which frequently confront senior military leaders in the Department of Defense. However, this approach is usually best suited in the process of making decisions or solving problems for situations which are well structured and simple. thus, the process of making decisions based on rational theory approach is dependent on clearly stated goals which is acceptable by the parties concerned with addressing a prevailing problematic condition that require urgent and difficult decisions to be made (Simon, 1979).
Due to this shortcoming of the rational process of making decisions, the theory has been subject to wide criticism because of its lack of consideration on all prevailing conditions as well as available information and possible options (Simon, 1976). Thus, the rational theory approach of making decisions and solving problems has been widely applied on technical issues where it works well, especially when there has been a precise definition of goals and a consensus has been arrived at concerning the measures for analyzing information and selection criteria. This means that this approach of making decisions cannot be applied in the process of making decisions on much more problematic and difficult situations such as those faced by defense organizations whose decisions may have far reaching consequences if not appropriately carried out.
However, in order to address the challenges of the rational theory, a bounded theory (the behavioral model/theory) was proposed and developed by Simon Herbert A. in the year 1967 (Simon, 1967). This was attributed to the fact that there was need to offer alternatives to the criticisms raised about rational theory. For instance, the most imperative outcome of criticism with regards to rational theory was the birth of bounded rationality theory. According to Simon (1967), bounded rationality theory as a vital approach to the process of making decisions holds that, in order to make decisions that are more cognitively rational decisions human beings are definitely ill-equipped because they only have the capacity to process a limited number of information at any stipulated time. As a result, according to Davis-Stober, Dana & Budescu (2010) the bounded rationality theory posits that it is impossible to carry out a comprehensive analysis about a prevailing situation that confront either an individuals or leaders because of the limitations caused by the lack of adequate information, expertise and time (Fiedler, 2010). Furthermore, the bounded rationality is hankered on the argument that, it is not possible for individuals to imagine every probable solution to a problem confronting them, and thus it is also not possible to consider or analyze all possible alternatives (Campitelli & Labollita, 2010).
The lure of adopting bounded rationality theory or paradigm in making decisions or conducting research has been significant due to the fact that many of the policy or decision problems confronting senior military leaders are often characterized by a certain extent of complexity which exceeds the cognitive constraints of human decision makers (Simon, 1955; Simon, 1967; Simon, 1972; Simon, 1997).
According to Erdfelder, Küpper-Tetzel & Mattern (2011), whenever there is some extent of complexity in a problem or situation requiring decisions to be made, and also whenever there is not strict restriction by the selection environment to an extent of imposing unique solutions; the bounded rationality theory provided for a paradigm suggesting that that the understanding of the situation can be improved through evaluation of the “aids to calculation” or decision heuristics which should be used by decision makers to objectively assess their difficult problems and make sense out of them. Simon (1972) reiterated that the bounded rationality theory is imperative because of the vital role it plays in encompassing the choices of theories incorporating constraints on the capacities of information processing of the actor or the decision maker.
According to Simon (1972), the conceptualization of bounded rationality theory is characterized by above all its specificity level which is of low degree a characteristic which explains to relatively much of the popularity this concept enjoys currently. in his attempts to come up with a theory that could address the issues which had been raised in the criticism on the rational theory approach to decision making or problem solving process, Simon (1967) incorporated the characteristics which defined the decision maker as well as the environment in which the decision has to be made or the problem has to be solved. As a result, the bridge connecting the distance between behavior and rationality is the concept of decision making and solving problems (Simon, 1972; 1997). Therefore, based on the bounded theory of rationality approach on making decisions or solving problems selection of one alternative through evaluation of all other possible options based on available information must be carried out bearing in mind each of the alternative has its own consequences (Simon, 1972).
This discussion reveals that, it is always very important for leaders to adopt the appropriate approach in their process of making decision and solving problems because they are confronted by a myriad of situations which they must make decisions on a day-to-day basis. In addition, Simon’s theory of bounded rationality has been chosen as the current theory of interest after evaluating the two extremes of rationality, that is, comprehensive rationality and bounded rationality. In addition, the current view of theory discussion with regards to Simon’s theory of bounded rationality and not the classical view have revealed an imperative aspect of the theory with regards to its approach process in making decisions (Marewski, Pohl and Vitouch, 2011).
Actual Application of the Theory
Application of theory into practice has been in imperative in ensuring explanation to the processes that guide decision-making and problem solving are provided. As a result, a phenomenon interpretation is carried out with regards to available information as well as available alternatives. Irrespective of the fact that, there are some theorist who do not support the utilization of theories in actual applications and rather they are of the opinion of using intuition in cognitive processes, actual application of the theory in practical environment is important because it helps in discerning between varied options as well as alternatives when making a decision bearing in mind the possible consequences. When scholars are in the process of carrying out research, their views should at all time be aligned with those represented in the current theories within a research area. This means that there is need to ensure that there is cohesiveness in order to easily enable application of theories in research.
Alternatively, some scholars are of the opinion that before a review of the literature is carried out, there is need for the data analysis framework to have been outlined. According to Crowther-Heyck (2005), there should always be an inevitable need for researchers to make sure that they develop inductive sensitivity to be used as the criterion of identifying the relevant and appropriate sources to be included in the literature (Dunne, 2011). Thus, the debate ranges on concerning the relationship between how a theory that is adopted to guide a research is related to the theoretical framework and methods of data analysis. This means that theory is essential in making sure that all activities involved in a research process run smoothly. Similarly, the Simon’s theory of bounded rationality in guiding the process of decision making as well as problem solving in many fields (Simon, 1997).
The Appropriateness of Theory Application to a Problem
A consideration of how appropriate is the application of a certain theory to a problem that been particularly identified in a field, it is undoubtedly evident that the continuation of this trend has been there over time and is important in guiding practice without biasness, prejudicing, stereotyping as well as unsubstantiated assumptions when dealing with information gathered concerning the problem. Theory is also imperative in establishing the tenets of the processes of making decisions as well as solving problems both at individual and organizational level. As a result, theory application from the view of strategic decision making processes, it is evident that it allows selection of the best alternative from the possible decisions that has a greater extent of leading to favorable consequences. The theory also ensures a higher level of intuition both in cognitive and judgmental process to enable the most appropriate decisions to be always made when confronted by a problem. In summary, the theory application is appropriate in practical situations according to its precise, accurate, clear as well as succinct understanding of the theory’s nature and scope, as well as the reasoning informing its particular application in practice.
Critique of Existing Research Design
Both qualitative as well as quantitative strategies of conducting research have a number of similarities even though uniquely applied to the study (Creswell, 2009). In most cases, quantitative research is used when there is need to establishing relationships inherent between variables of a phenomenon as well as the data gathered using statistical interpretations. According to Creswell (2009), both quantitative research methods and qualitative research methods are combined in a mixed method of research in order to allow for greater strengthening of the credibility and reliability of the research findings.
On the other hand, qualitative research methods often focus on making sure the collected data is of high quality subsequent to data analysis methods such as content analysis in order to ensure that the gathered information is sorted into groups or categories prior to classification based on specific content’s occurrence frequency levels (Toomela, 2011). Trochim (2000) emphasized that qualitative research methods are in general utilized for the generation of new theories as well as providing in-depth insights concerning a particular situation. In qualitative research design collection of the research data is done through stories or narratives depicting the opinion of respondents, and the obtained results are subsequently characterized based on non-numerical methods of data analysis (Trochim 2000; Toomela, 2011). Bernard & Ryan (2010) noted that qualitative research methods have a number of shortcomings including that: outside the sample it is impossible for assumptions to be made; the nature of gathered data does not allow generalizations to be made; the adopted sample sizes tend to be small unless there is favorability from other factors such as time, research personnel, as well as money; and lastly the sole determinant of data analysis process success is the skills of the researcher.
Alternatively, quantitative research methods mainly focus on the quantity of gathered data and the subsequent data analysis using parametric measures. According to Trochim (2000), the focal point of quantitative data is the number of people that an event affects. Saini & Shlonsky (2012) noted that quantitative research methods have various bottlenecks including: the possibility of superficial findings due to the narrow set of gathered data; as well as the results of studies are narrow range due to the numerical descriptions provided by the methods of data analysis adopted.
Conclusion
In conclusion, it is important to note that the application of a theory in actual practice is imperative in the attempts to provide explanations concerning a particular situation across varied settings. As a result, it has been found that the use of theory in practical applications in varied fields is critically imperative since it plays a vital role in guiding such practices on basis of predicting outcomes. The credibility and reliability of the research findings obtained based on such theoretical frameworks have been attributable to the wide application of theoretical concepts in practice. Moreover, it has been revealed that both qualitative research methods and quantitative research methods have different applications in research depending on the research environment, data anticipated to be collected, as well as the predicted outcomes. However, each of these research strategies has its own limitations making it essential to sometimes combine the two as an approach to ensure each method supplements the weaknesses of the other method.
Simons Theory of Bounded Rationality and Defense References
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Select five empirical articles from peer-reviewed journals that you consider critical to your understanding of your area of dissertation research. Each article should address a particular phenomenon and attempt to contribute to theory about it.
Research
In this question an assessment on the ability, skills as well as knowledge of the doctoral student will be carried out with regards to potential to read, understand, critique, and also integrate findings of research studies. In particular, the journal articles to be reviewed in this question concern empirical studies which identify a gap in studies which had been conducted previously providing a critical approach to scientific research. As a result, five peer-reviewed journal articles have been reviewed in this question by evaluating all sections required to be covered in a scholarly and/or journal article. The review of literature in the considered journal articles will require the research problem and research purpose to be identified, as well as determination and discussion of the research methodology as well as the research findings and their implications. Furthermore, the last two parts of this question will include a review of literature as well as formulation of a research proposal aimed at addressing the gaps identified in the journal articles reviewed.
Review of Journal Articles
- Cunningham, G. K. (2012).A phenomenological study of the use of intuition among senior military commanders (Order No. 3548926). Available from ABI/INFORM Complete. (1282649087). Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1282649087?accountid=45049
Research problem: The problem this research sought to address concerns the fact that, despite the acknowledgement that intuition is an imperative cognitive function with regards to senior leaders in the military, there has been very minimal practical investigation which has been undertaken for qualitative assessment on the extent to which senior leaders in the military rely on intuition to make crucial decisions.
Research purpose: The purpose of this research was to undertake a qualitative study as the appropriate approach towards exploration of the intuition and hierarchy interface among senior leaders in the military. In particular, the study played an essential role in examining the meanings as well as experiences assigned to the utilization of intuitive decision making among top level military leaders.
Design/methodology/approach: The study design or methodology or approach adopted in conducting this study was a transcendental phenomology method or approach which was proposed by Moustakas (1994) to enable the investigation of perspectives as well as experiences of senior military leaders at the apex of the large, organizations that are stratified. The research sample included over a hundred general officers serving within the U.S. Marine Corps as well as the U.S. Army to elucidate the extent of intuitive decision making, especially when confronted by the need to choices between multiple options which are not only difficulty but also tricky.
Findings: Through this study, it is clearly evident that a number of critical issues with regards to the research topic were deciphered. For instance, the study findings revealed that emergent ways of describing intuition as a nonrational mode as well as an experientially based mode of solving problems and making decisions that heavily rely on recognizing patterns and trends are sound and credible. The research findings also indicate that, upon interviewing co-researchers based on the adopted research method, consistency was displayed in both their confidence on the utility as well as accuracy of using intuition in addition to the usage of intuitive judgment to solve problems or make decisions, especially when confronted by a difficult situation.
The findings of this study are in concurrence with Simon’s theory of bounded rationality since they reveal that the nonrational decision making mode was found to be a credible as well as a sound approach as proposed by Simon Herbart in 1976. In particular, the interviewed senior military leaders perceived utilization of intuition as a credible and reliable cognitive tool, which has to some extent been preferable to bounded rationality as well as evidence-based approaches to solving problems and making decisions among senior military leaders. The findings of this study have a potential for application, especially in the context of strategic leadership and decision making level which is highly ambiguous and rapidly changing. As a result, there is need to carry out further research on how this approach of making decisions as well as solving problems has been implemented not only in security and leadership but also in other areas and possible ways of improving it.
- Jablow, L. R. (2012).Exposing experience: A grounded theory study exploring the influence of experience on executive decision processes (Order No. 3542618). Available from ABI/INFORM Complete. (1151828003). Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1151828003?accountid=45049
Research problem: This study sought to explore a problem of decision processes that has faced many executives in corporate, SMEs as well as startups. Therefore, in the context of contemporary business environment, there are unique demands as well as increasing challenges that continue to confront leaders with leaders to or arising from interconnectivity, information volume, temporal pressure, as well as increased complexity and uncertainty in the process of making important decisions. In this context, when the dynamic nature of decision making process in a contemporary business environment is considered, it is undoubtedly evident that the effectiveness of utilizing traditional analytic processes of making decision faltered. In addition, there was still an existing gap within the body of knowledge regarding to the intuitive decision making processes and experience.
Research purpose: The purpose of this research based on qualitative grounded theory was to undertake the development of a theory with regards to the critical role played by experience as an influential factor on the process of making decisions among leaders. This has necessitated the need to explore for alternatives. As a result, the intuitive process of making decisions as proposed in the theory of bounded rationality by Simon, where the variable experience has been included inform of a potential viable alternative should be explored with regards to existing information and options.
Design/methodology/approach: The research design or method adopted in this study was a qualitative grounded theory study, and it relied on an interpretivist view to investigate the phenomenon in order to gain insights into how experience in decision making process was utilized among business leaders. In this study, 27 business leaders drawn across the United States were randomly selected to participate in the study which included participation in both unstructured as well as structured interviews in addition to responding to a decision vignette. Analysis was then conducted on the data collected from the research participants to enable development of concepts with an objective of providing theoretical stability for the emergent theory.
Findings: Through the findings of this study it was discovered that a nexus existed between relationships, experience, and the process of making decisions. The research culminated by the emergence of the experience’s relationship consequences theory. The theory’s premise was that the process of making decisions utilized by leaders is usually influenced by their experiences making them to embrace an awareness creation within the environment in which decisions are made with regards to dynamic relationship consequences, consequently enabling an adjustment of goals by leaders as well as allowing them to anticipate future problems likely to arise from the decision.
The emerged theory has numerous implications with regards to humanization of trust relationships as well as processes of making decisions. As a result, the envisaged implications have the potential of causing significant consequences associated with networked organizations, competitive advantage, as well as the capacity of leadership to undertake an effective process of making decisions in a decision making environment where a gap is created through experience between business goals and the decision maker’s relationship goals. Thus, it is recommended that future research should focus on exploration of the process of making decisions with regards to how experience relationship consequences theory can be appropriately presented.
- Jarboui, S., & Boujelbene, Y. (2012). The behavioral approach and the rationality of economic decisions: Application to banks managers.Global Business and Management Research, 4(2), 205-219. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1285154033?accountid=45049
Research problem: The research problem investigated and presented in this study concerns the challenge that confront many bank managers with regards to making justified and logical markets on perfect markets based on behavioral economics theory. In the conventional economic theory, economic agents who are perfectly rational tend to decisions concerning perfect markets which are logical as well as justified based on the existing knowledge or information as well as options or alternatives. Nevertheless, day to day life of general economic agents, executives, investors and managers is not the one that can be considered to be a “homoeconomicus” rationally and has no justification to pretend or imitate a mathematical model behavior.
Research purpose: The purpose of this research is to undertake advancement on an empirical contribution to existing literature concerning behavioral economics. In the attempts to achieve this purpose, the study provides an exploration as well as validation of the behavioral economics theory predictions based on theoretical concepts with regards to the process of making decisions.
Design/methodology/approach: The research design or method utilized to carry out this study was a qualitative research strategy aimed at exploring and validating theoretical predictions inherent within the decision making process proposed in the behavioral economic theory. The research study included a sample of 124 managers drawn across various banks operating in Tunisia. The researcher used this randomly selected sample population to investigate the research problem in the Tunisian context.
Findings: Using a sample size of 124 bank managers drawn across Tunisia, the study findings revealed that the psychological emotions and biases of these managers has a high likelihood of serving as a determining factor of their bounded rationality meaning that they are likely to possibly provide explanations for the distortions inherent in their managerial decisions. The research findings underscore the fact that, financial institutions must always be aware and remain vigilant since the psychology as well as emotions of managers of banks can persist leading to continued distortions in the process of making decisions. Managers of banks in Tunisia are normal, and the findings of this study reveal that they are affected by their emotions and psychology; something can be attributed to the observed distortions in the managerial decisions. Thus, the study findings have far reaching implications not only in the financial institutions but also the many other sectors of the economy. As a result, the implications of the findings of this study may be in helping financial institutions to come up with strategies aimed at limiting the negative effects attributed to the influence of the personal characteristics (psychological, emotional biases) of managers of the efficiency of the decision making process.
- Liberman-Yaconi, L., Hooper, T., & Hutchings, K. (2010). Toward a model of understanding strategic decision-making in micro-firms: Exploring the Australian information technology sector`.Journal of Small Business Management, 48(1), 70-95. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/220960853?accountid=45049
Research problem: The research problem addressed in this study concerns the incomplete characterization of strategic decision making, especially when it is considered from the perspective of micro-firms which are without any doubt a significant business subsector economically.
Research purpose: The purpose of this research is to make sure that the strategic decision making (SDM) processes adopted by many micro-firms, a business subsector that is economically significant are explored. The research sought to investigate how businesses operating within the micro-firms subsector make decisions, as well as carrying out the strategic decision making characterization which as extant small- and large-firm literature presently proffers incomplete.
Design/methodology/approach: The study utilized a multiple case methodology to carry out an investigation of how as extant small- and large-firms undertake the process of making strategic decisions. Eleven Australian micro-firms in the Information Technology service were selected for participation in this study in order to make sure that data was collected concerning the processes they adopted in making strategic decisions. The study adopted an information-processing lens to evaluate the collected data.
Findings: The findings of this study with regards to the phenomenon under investigation underscores the imperativeness of embracing strategic decision making processes irrespective of the level of the business or the sector in which the business operates. For instance, through the utilization of an information-processing lens, the findings of the study revealed patterns and trends of strategic decision making processes adopted by Australian micro-firms operating in the Information Technology service leading to derivation of a theoretical micro-firms SDM model. In particular, the findings of the study identifies a number of implications for the management of micro-firms as well as future research directions, contributing to further understanding as well as further insights into the micro-firm SDM both theoretically and in practice.
Tooth, A. B. (2010). The role of aesthetic experience in the timing of nontraditional students’ decision making (Order No. 3408469). Available from ABI/INFORM Complete. (597941038). Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/597941038?accountid=45049
Research problem: The research problem this study sought to address concerns the insufficiency of knowledge with regards to aesthetic experiences for seven college students whose age was nontraditional and in their senior year concerning naturalistic decision making. Another aspect of the research problem is concerned with the role played by timing of critical educational decisions made by the students with regards to persistence, which is attributable to lack of sufficient advice on the necessary approaches for this population of students.
Research purpose: The purpose of this study was to carry out an exploration of how participants interpreted their aesthetic experiences of naturalistic (intuitive, contextual, as well as evidence-based) process of making decisions as well as the role of timings of the decisions.
Design/methodology/approach: The research design or methodology adopted in this study included a qualitative research method which is of a basic interpretive design that utilized the technique of active interview. The participants of the students included seven volunteer students who embarked on a reflection of the diversity in both the racial composition (White, Black, American Indian and Hispanic) and the age of the sample (ranging between 26 and 58 years). Out of the seven research participants, six of them were female while one of the research participants was a male. The analysis of the collected data was conducted using the constant comparative technique based on the grounded theory analysis to carry out an exploration of interpretations given by the research participants with regards to their aesthetic experiences of naturalistic (intuitive, contextual, as well as evidence-based) process of making decisions as well as the role of timings of the decisions. Consequently, an interpretive analytic framework was constructed by the researcher in order to understand the core phenomenon which is inherent in this study.
Findings: The study findings obtained through the analysis of the data collected from participants reveal an important role of aesthetic experience in the decision making timing by the participants, in conjunction with an emergent of moral purpose sense inspired through an awakening event or a decision, enabled an integration of action by the participants into their lives in a manner that over time there was an engagement of the research participants with regards to decision making approach integrating their actions subsequently contributing to a sense of self-efficacy and continuity that supported their efforts towards continuing with their education program. For example, a student whose experience of 9/11 terrorist attack contributed to dramatic consciousness awakening was one of the core phenomenon under investigation in this study, and was found to play an imperative role in her life changes, as well as leading to an indirect effect on the timing of her decisions on educational program subsequently resulting to social action work interest. An expanded and in-depth understanding of the decision timing among the participants through their aesthetic experience is likely to contribute to better understanding in an attempt to succinctly examine decision issues associated with student retention and support of the decision making process among nontraditional students.
Part 2: Literature Review
The process of making decisions by leaders across different sectors of the economy often leads to effective decisions, particularly when based on bounded rationality (Jablow, 2012). Cunningham (2012) reiterates that despite the acknowledgement that intuition is an imperative cognitive function with regards to senior leaders in the military, there has been very minimal practical investigation which has been undertaken for qualitative assessment on the extent to which senior leaders in the military rely on intuition to make crucial decisions.
Jarboui & Boujelbene (2012) reported a significant challenge that confront many bank managers with regards to making justified and logical markets on perfect markets based on behavioral economics theory. In the conventional economic theory, economic agents who are perfectly rational tend to decisions concerning perfect markets which are logical as well as justified based on the existing knowledge or information as well as options or alternatives (Jarboui & Boujelbene, 2012). Nevertheless, day to day life of general economic agents, executives, investors and managers is not the one that can be considered to be a “homoeconomicus” rationally and has no justification to pretend or imitate a mathematical model behavior (Jarboui & Boujelbene, 2012).
In a different study, Liberman-Yaconi, Hooper & Hutchings (2010) examined how strategic decision making (SDM) processes has been adopted by many micro-firms, a business subsector that is economically significant improve quality of decisions. The research investigated how businesses operating within the micro-firms subsector make decisions, as well as carrying out the strategic decision making characterization which as extant small- and large-firm literature presently proffers incomplete (Liberman-Yaconi, Hooper & Hutchings, 2010). Furthermore, according to Liberman-Yaconi, Hooper & Hutchings (2010) the characterization of the SDM model through the utilization of information-processing lens, the findings of the study revealed patterns and trends of strategic decision making processes adopted by Australian micro-firms operating in the Information Technology service leading to derivation of a theoretical micro-firms SDM model. In particular, the findings of the study identifies a number of implications for the management of micro-firms as well as future research directions, contributing to further understanding as well as further insights into the micro-firm SDM both theoretically and in practice (Liberman-Yaconi, Hooper & Hutchings, 2010).
The other factor that influence decisions made is the process adopted in approaching the decision making (McCall, 2004; Nutt, 2004; Sadler-Smith & Shefy, 2004). Tooth (2010) conducted a study to investigate the insufficiency of knowledge with regards to aesthetic experiences for seven college students whose age was nontraditional and in their senior year concerning naturalistic decision making, and the role played by the timing of critical educational decisions made by the students with regards to persistence, which is attributable to lack of sufficient advice on the necessary approaches for this population of students. According to Tooth (2010) reveal an important role of aesthetic experience in the decision making timing by the participants, in conjunction with an emergent of moral purpose sense inspired through an awakening event or a decision, enabled an integration of action by the participants into their lives in a manner that over time there was an engagement of the research participants with regards to decision making approach integrating their actions subsequently contributing to a sense of self-efficacy and continuity that supported their efforts towards continuing with their education program.
Alternatively, Jarboui & Boujelbene (2012) explored how personal characteristics of bank managers in Tunisia affected their decision making process as well as actual decisions. Their study revealed that the psychological emotions and biases of the bank managers have a high likelihood of serving as a determining factor of their bounded rationality meaning that they are likely to possibly provide explanations for the distortions inherent in their managerial decisions (Jarboui & Boujelbene, 2012). The research findings underscore the fact that, financial institutions must always be aware and remain vigilant since the psychology as well as emotions of managers of banks can persist leading to continued distortions in the process of making decisions (Jarboui & Boujelbene, 2012). According to Jarboui & Boujelbene (2012), managers of banks in Tunisia are normal, and the findings of this study reveal that they are affected by their emotions and psychology; something can be attributed to the observed distortions in the managerial decisions.
Similarly, Jablow (2012) reported that a nexus existed between relationships, experience, and the process of making decisions, and the findings of this study culminated in the emergence of the experience’s relationship consequences theory. The theory’s premise was that the process of making decisions utilized by leaders is usually influenced by their experiences making them to embrace an awareness creation within the environment in which decisions are made with regards to dynamic relationship consequences, subsequently enabling an adjustment of goals by leaders as well as allowing them to anticipate future problems likely to arise from the decision (Jablow, 2012). According to Jablow (2012), the emergence of this theory has numerous implications with regards to humanization of trust relationships as well as processes of making decisions. As a result, the envisaged implications have the potential of causing significant consequences associated with networked organizations, competitive advantage, as well as the capacity of leadership to undertake an effective process of making decisions in a decision making environment where a gap is created through experience between business goals and the decision maker’s relationship goals.
Proposed study
From the review of the literature presented in the journal articles considered in Part 1 and Part 2 of this question, it can be succinctly determined that there many issues that have been revealed with regards to the phenomenon under consideration. It is imperative to note a considerable proportion of the findings reported in the peer-reviewed journal articles reviewed are in the mainstream domain; whereas others were not previously known and provided totally new knowledge. As a result, the study to be proposed here will strive to investigate one of the unknown issues concerning the considered phenomenon, especially with regards to the use intuition which informs bounded rationality in the decision making process. In particular, the study to be proposed here will be aimed at making sure that the intuitive and cognitive aspect of a decision making process is carried out within the limits of bounded rationality theory suggested by Simon Herbert in 1976.
Despite the acknowledgement that intuition is an imperative cognitive function with regards to facilitating the process of making decisions among senior leaders, there have been minimal practical investigations for qualitative assessment on the extent to which senior leaders rely on intuition to make crucial decisions. Through this study, several issues will be deciphered with regards to the perceived utilization of intuition as a reliable cognitive tool, which has to some extent been preferable as an evidence-based approach towards solving problems and making decisions. The findings of this study have the potential of application in strategic leadership and decision making level, which is highly ambiguous and rapidly changing.
An issue that has not been clearly addressed and remain unknown or unclear concerns practical qualitative assessment on the extent to which leaders rely on intuition within the bounded rationality when confronted with the need to make a decision between difficult or tricky situations. Thus, there is need to carry out further research on practical qualitative assessment with regards to how this approach of making decisions as well as solving problems has been relied on by leaders across various sectors to make better decisions. As a result, a research is proposed to study covering all the sections that require inclusion in a journal article as follows:
Research question: To what extent do leaders in the security sector rely on intuition within the bounded rationality when confronted with the need to make a decision between difficult or tricky situations?
Research purpose: This proposed research has a purpose of evaluating the extent to which leaders working in the security sector rely on intuition within the bounded rationality when confronted with the need to make a decision between difficult or tricky situations. The proposed study will also ascertain whether there are significant differences between the reliability and effectiveness of decision making processes developed based on intuitive bounded rationality. Motivation for the study: The motivation for the proposed study is the need to ascertain whether reliance on intuitive judgment based on bounded rationality theory developed by Simon Herbert can have significant impact on improving the processes of making decisions as well as solving problems. This is attributable to the numerous decisions that have faltered because they were made based on traditional methods.
Research design, method or approach: The research design, method or approach to be adopted in the proposed study is a qualitative research strategy aimed at exploring and validating theoretical predictions inherent within the decision making process proposed. Convenience sampling method will be used to select 200 corporate managers drawn across all sectors as research participants of the proposed study. Collection of data from the research participants will be carried out through both semi-structured and structured in-depth interviews as well as administration of questionnaires. The collected data will then be subjected to processing and subsequently to correlational and regression data analysis with the aid of SPSS software (Charmaz, 2005; Crotty, 2003; Creswell, 2009; Tsoukas & Knudsen, 2002).
Justification of the chosen methods: The qualitative research method chosen is justified by the fact that, it will play an imperative role in enabling primary data to be collected from the research respondents with regards to the variables of a phenomenon under investigation utilizing the aforementioned data collection techniques including both semi-structured and structured in-depth interviews as well as administration of questionnaires (Creswell, 2009; Gephart, 1999).
Data analysis: The plan to be adopted in the analysis of the collected data would start by cleansing as well as processing of raw data through elimination of outliers, dealing with missing values as well as coding the data to make it easy for the actual data analysis. The SPSS software will then be used to conduct both correlational and regression data analysis. Furthermore, techniques of analyzing the data collected from research participants are vital in ensuring that appropriate statistical tests are carried out including the ANOVA, Regression as well as Correlation to allow meaningful insights to be gained from the findings of the proposed study (Strauss & Corbin, 1998; Creswell, 2009).
Simons Theory of Bounded Rationality and Defense References
Charmaz, K. (2005). Grounded theory in the 21st century. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln, The Sage handbook of qualitative research, (3rd ed., pp.507-537). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications Inc.
Crotty, M. (2003). The foundations of social research: Meaning and perspective in the research process. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.
Cunningham, G. K. (2012). A phenomenological study of the use of intuition among senior military commanders (Order No. 3548926). Available from ABI/INFORM Complete. (1282649087). Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1282649087?accountid=45049
Gephart, R. (1999). Paradigms and research methods. Academy of Management Research Methods Forum, 4. Retrieved January 7, 2009, from http://division.aomonline.org/rm/1999_RMD_Forum_Paradigms_and_Research_Methods.htm
Jablow, L. R. (2012). Exposing experience: A grounded theory study exploring the influence of experience on executive decision processes (Order No. 3542618). Available from ABI/INFORM Complete. (1151828003). Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1151828003?accountid=45049
Jarboui, S., & Boujelbene, Y. (2012). The behavioral approach and the rationality of economic decisions: Application to banks managers. Global Business and Management Research, 4(2), 205-219. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1285154033?accountid=45049
Klein, G. A. (2004). The Power of Intuition: How to Use Your Gut Feelings to Make Better Decisions at Work. New York, NY: Random House.
Liberman-Yaconi, L., Hooper, T., & Hutchings, K. (2010). Toward a model of understanding strategic decision-making in micro-firms: Exploring the Australian information technology sector`. Journal of Small Business Management, 48(1), 70-95. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/220960853?accountid=45049
Mann, L., & Tan, C. (1993). The hassled decision maker: The effects of perceived time pressure on information processing in decision making. Australian Journal of Management, 18(2), 197-201.
McCall, M W. (2004). Leadership development through experience. Academy of Management Executive, 18(3), 127-130.
Moustakas, C. (1994). Phenomenological research methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.
Nutt, P C. (2004). Expanding the search for alternatives during strategic decision-making. Academy of Management Executive, 18(4), 13-28.
Sadler-Smith, E., & Shefy, E. (2004). The intuitive executive: Understanding and applying ‘gut feel’ in decision-making. Academy of Management Executive, 18(4), 76-91.
Siebold, G. L. (2001). Core issues and theory in military sociology. Journal of Political and Military Sociology,29(1), 140-159.
Strauss, A., & Corbin, J. (1998). Basics of qualitative research: Techniques and procedures for developing grounded theory, (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.
Tooth, A. B. (2010). The role of aesthetic experience in the timing of nontraditional students’ decision making (Order No. 3408469). Available from ABI/INFORM Complete. (597941038). Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/597941038?accountid=45049
Tsoukas, H., & Knudsen, C. (2002). The conduct of strategy research. In A. Pettigrew, H. Thomas, & R. Whittington (Eds.), Handbook of strategic management, (pp. 411-435). London, UK: Sage Publications Inc.
Question 4
Write a paper in which you discuss how you will ensure that all aspects of your doctoral research, from literature review to conducting research to writing the dissertation manuscript will be done with care and integrity and will meet the ethical standards of scientific research. Reference the two publications above and at least five additional peer-reviewed articles
Ethics
The process of conducting research in scientific fields usually requires doctoral students, scholars or seasoned researchers to stringently comply with ethical standards of the highest level. As a result, doctoral students need to be equipped with a succinct understanding of needed ethical guidelines as the first line strategy of ensuring that they avoid any legal, negligence or trust issues that may arise in course of their research process (Singh & Bennington, 2012). Therefore, it is undoubtedly obvious that to fully understand and complete the process of doctoral research; high levels of discipline, patience, integrity and strength are inevitable (Osei, 2013). This is attributed to the fact that, the entire process involves a myriad of complex and daunting tasks including development of the necessary research questions, designing appropriate research methodology, conducting sufficient literature review, and eventually coming up with a concept paper that acts as a foot print to the proposal and final dissertation (Horrom, 2012).
To efficiently answer this question, an assessment on the process of conducting doctoral research will be carried out with regards to obtaining permission, maintaining integrity and research discipline, as well as strategies of ensuring ethical standards of optimal levels are maintained (Singh & Bennington, 2012) . Thus, an exploration on the core values which are necessary during the doctoral research process will be delved in details. Ethics in doctoral research at Northcentral University involves various issues that need to be adequately addressed such as how to effectively review the literature, strategies of avoiding plagiarism, how to carry out risk assessment prior to the study, how to obtain informed consent from research participants, methods of maintaining privacy and confidentiality of collected data, ethical methods of handling and reporting information gathered from research participants as well as appropriate ways of avoiding mistakes and negligence during the research process (Osei, 2013). The other ethical issues to be addressed include the necessity of working with a Mentor as well as the process of obtaining approval from the Institutional Research Review Board (IRRB) and the requirements stipulated by Northcentral University. Thus, despite the broad approach adopted in this discussion with regards to ethical standards of conducting a doctoral research, my specific set of ethics will include: working with mentors, acquisitions of required approvals to conduct the research, avoiding plagiarism, obtaining informed consent, conducting risk assessment, ensuring collected data is maintained private and confidential, as well as making sure that the collected data is handled and reported professionally.
Self-Assessment
In the preparation for and completion of the research proposed in my doctoral study to investigate Simon’s Theory of Bounded Rationality and the Department of Defense, there are various steps which ought to be followed for the purpose of ensuring that throughout the doctoral research all procedures are carried out with integrity and care and in accordance with the ethical standards laid down to guide scientific research at doctoral level (Horrom, 2012). Upon completion of comprehensive examinations and self-evaluation, it will be the right time to begin the dissertation process. Thus, the dissertation process can be started I will definitely assess myself on issues such as level of commitment and time management plan required to be met in order to ensure that the rigorous process of the research study is successfully completed (Osei, 2013). The process self-assessment is an imperative step that is essential in aiding reflections on my personal biases and/or beliefs that can potentially affect the study as well as making decision on the appropriate research approach to adopt (Evans & Combs, 2008). In addition, the self-assessment will also include a review of the University’s code of conduct as way of reinforcing the need to be honest, respectful, and transparent throughout the process of conducting my doctoral research (Singh & Bennington, 2012).
Working with the Mentor
Following completion of self-assessment, the next step in the dissertation research process will be to address the issue of coming up with a dissertation committee as well as determining or picking a mentor (s) to be working with throughout the process of the dissertation research (Osei, 2013). The need to have a dissertation committee as well as working with a mentor or mentors cannot be underestimated due to the fundamental role the play in providing guidance, assisting where necessary as well as making sure integrity of the research is maintained (Evans & Combs, 2008). Thus, for the sake of ensuring ethical standards and integrity are adhered to throughout the research process, the dissertation committee and mentor will be often consulted through an open dialogue concerning any aspect of the dissertation research process or decisions to be made (Horrom, 2012; Singh & Bennington, 2012).
It is undoubtedly evident that the process of conducting a dissertation research is a complex and cumbersome process that requires a doctoral student to follow clear instructions as well as directions from dissertation committee and mentors for the process to be completed successfully (Osei, 2013). Mentors are highly important throughout the dissertation process, and play a fundamental role in facilitating and guiding doctoral students at each stage of the study. This is attributable to the fact that, mentors are in the forefront to ensure that academic standards of their respective students in addition to other standards, procedures and guidelines with regards to ethics are generally acceptable. According to Zipp, Cahill, & Clark (2009), it is very important for doctoral students to work closely with their mentors and seek guidance and clarifications on any challenging issue they face during their dissertation research process. Furthermore, apart from specific mentors that doctoral students pick or are assigned to as supervisors, many institutions have mentoring programs which play an important role of providing research assistance to the students either directly or indirectly through seminars or conferences to discuss emerging issues (Singh & Bennington, 2012).
The significance of mentors is undisputedly immense in helping doctoral students to successfully complete their study by providing them with appropriate support, expertise as well as motivation to ensure that they hone their skills and acquire the necessary knowledge. Thus, mentors are without any doubt very crucial in offering support and encouragement to doctoral students in their attempts to learn and adopt or implement best practices their research process. As a result, the availability of a mentor is required at all stages of the dissertation to ensure that doctoral students that they supervise do not hit a snug or get stuck in their dissertation process, which may derail their study timelines subsequently delaying their proposed schedule (Evans & Combs, 2008). This creates the need for doctoral students to closely work with their mentors who occasionally provide valuable academic resources as well as efficient strategies that are of significant assistance to the students. Zipp et al. (2009) note that mentors play a significant role to positively impact the progress of the doctoral students they supervise by directly guiding them through the key stages of doctoral research including research instruments’ designing and testing, administration of research instruments through interviews or surveys, collecting data from research participants as well as analysis and reporting of gathered data (Singh & Bennington, 2012). Moreover, mentors also play a critical guidance role and have a significant impact on doctoral students to ensure that their final work in their dissertation research is of high quality through enhancement of performance as well as the reputation their respective institutions (Zipp et al., 2009). Finally, it also important to note that mentors and dissertation committees are of imperative significance in assisting doctoral students to avoid mistakes and negligence during their research study.
Data Handling and Reporting
Proper collection, handling, storage, analysis and reporting of data collected from research participants is an essential aspect of the doctoral research process in order to ensure that, the integrity, legitimacy, reliability and validity of the research process is assured (Osei, 2013). Efforts to ensure these ethical standards including safety of research participants and the privacy and confidentiality of gathered information are maintained, IRRB approval must be obtained by the student prior to beginning the research process whenever human subjects are envisaged to participate in the study (Osei, 2013). IRRB at Northcentral University is mandated with the task of providing guidance to students on the requirements that must be met prior to embarking on the data collection process and evaluate the proposed research methods to ensure that human subjects picked to participate in any study where Northcentral University students or employees are involved do not get abused or subjected to violations of their rights (Evans & Combs, 2008). According to Osei (2013), IRRB pays significant attention prior to approving studies, especially where the data to be gathered from research respondents touch on sensitivity issues such as behavioral patterns in a society, as well as studies involving participation of subjected within protected classes with an ultimate goal of ensuring that the rights of participants are not violated and their needs and comfort are met.
The need to properly handle the data collected from research participants is unquestionable considering that a slight mishandling of the data may lead to dire consequences and subsequently have a serious negative impact on the research findings. This makes it imperative for the data handling methods to be prioritized (Singh & Bennington, 2012). As a result, the handling of data to be collected from the research participants of the proposed study will be carried out with regards to Northcentral University’s guidelines from the beginning to end. There will be regular consultations with the mentor and chairperson of the dissertation committee to ensure that ethical standards on data handling are adhered to (Osei, 2013). This is mainly because when collected data is inappropriately handled, processed, or stored; unauthorized access by persons with ulterior motives may occur leading to misuse or legal redress, and such occurrences may significantly hurt the reputation of the researcher and the associated institution (Horrom, 2012).
Data collection from research participants in the proposed doctoral study will be carried out using methods such as observations, tape recordings, personal note taking, as well as administration of questionnaires (Horrom, 2012). During the data collection process consistency will be maintained and laid down guidelines, regulations and policies will be strictly complied to. Breaches in privacy and confidentiality of the collected data can be significantly reduced by ensuring that data processing timelines are adhered to (Evans & Combs, 2008). Storage of data collected from the research participants of the proposed study will be in locked cabinets placed in a room with restricted access as well as a personal computers with a secured access through a strong password (Osei, 2013). Appropriate storage and processing of collected data is important for the validity and reliability of the research findings; and lack of protection may cause unauthorized access and misuse of the data leading to loss of funding or legal issues (Singh & Bennington, 2012).
Evans & Combs (2008) stated that the conclusion of a particular study may act as a prerequisite of another one due to other research questions which may arise from the identified research gaps that require further research. With authorized access for research or academic purposes, data collected in previous studies may be required to either support or refute newly formulated hypothesis and this makes it important to adopt research methods that are reproducible in future if need to confirm the findings arises (Osei, 2013). Thus, it is crucial for the researcher to devise a contingency plan for the storage and retrieval of data collected from previous studies (Osei, 2013). As a result, all the data to be collected for the proposed doctoral study will be stored in the hard drive of a personal computer with secured passwords and back-ups of the data stored in CD-ROMS, flash drives, and online data clouds. Any hardcopies of the filled questionnaires will be scanned prior to storing them in the personal computers alongside any other necessary documents. Access of the raw data collected from research participants will only be authorized to research assistant together with the researcher to ensure its privacy and confidentiality. In addition, the researcher will ensure that all appropriate measures are implemented to avoid violation of any ethical standard outlined in the University guidelines (Horrom, 2012; Singh & Bennington, 2012).
Mistakes and Negligence
The process of researching and writing a doctoral thesis just like any other process is not an exception for mistakes to occur due to the complexity and challenges encountered throughout the research process and writing up of the final dissertation (Evans & Combs, 2008; Osei, 2013). This means that even though chances of mistakes occurring can be significantly minimized by constantly reviewing or closely working with mentors supervising the dissertation and the dissertation committee, the dissertation does not become immune from mistakes whether slight or big ones (Singh & Bennington, 2012). This may attributed to the fact that, students are naïve with regards the dissertation process due to lack of sufficient knowledge and experience, which are possibly the leading causes of mistakes. However, it is the responsibility of the doctoral student to ensure such mistakes are abated to avoid the problems that may ensue if preventative or corrective measures are not taken (Singh & Bennington, 2012).
Therefore, in the proposed doctoral research mistakes will be limited by ensuring that all procedures are double checked and strictly followed, collected data is carefully and attentively entered into a computer for storage, and documents to be used in the process are keenly proofread (Nancy & Chester-Fangman, 2011). At the stage of data entry, processing and analysis the researcher will frequently consult the mentor for guidance and clarifications on any issue of concern. In addition, the researcher will adopt a receptive, inquisitive, intuitive, and open approach when consulting with the mentor with regards to each stage involved in the rigorous process as well as appropriate learning and research strategies, which are imperative in improving the quality of the final dissertation write-up (Schoenherr & Williams-Jones, 2011). As a result, by succinctly understanding all the steps involved in the dissertation research process, a doctoral student will be able to avoid commonly occurring mistakes (Singh & Bennington, 2012).
On the other hand, Pitcher (2011) reiterate that negligence is one of the leading causes of mistakes done by doctoral students and should be totally avoided at all costs. In order to avoid negligence, doctoral students should strictly following the code of conduct as well as ethical standards outline to guide the dissertation research process in a doctoral study (Horrom, 2012). Furthermore, students should fully commit themselves to the research process and rely of the expertise and experience of mentors and peer reviewers of research studies at the faculty as they fulfill their research process supervision obligations in order to ensure that mistakes are prevented and even the slightest mistakes are identified and corrected (Pitcher, 2011).
Literature Review
According to Jazvac-Martek (2009), in order to successfully undertake a doctorate research process, determination and passion to succeed should be unquestionable because a doctoral student ought to be innately driven and determined to overcome all the encountered challenges in order to accomplish the study (Osei, 2013). In particular, perseverance must a core driving force in the literature review process because the need to have a fully understanding of the study field is inevitable. During the literature review process, resilience and attention to detail are inevitable to ensure that an extensive collection of documents and research materials from a wide range of resources is conducted, subsequent to evaluating, assessing and organizing the vast poll of information gathered in course of reviewing the literature (Artino & Brown, 2009). The sources of data or information that will be relied on during the literature review include: peer-reviewed journals, books, reports, online databases and websites (Davis, 2011).
The task involved in gathering data during the literature review process is undoubtedly highly demanding and the need to follow laid down formats, adhering to stringent guidelines and instructions as well as evaluating credibility of the sources of information are inevitable practices (Artino & Brown, 2009). As a result, doctoral students are under constant pressure to gather sufficient information which would be adequate to enable a concept paper to be developed in addition to the conceptual framework and proposal to be followed in the actual dissertation research (Koocher & Keith-Spiegel, 2010). Thus, the rigorous work to be completed within a short duration and strict timelines may make the students to submit substandard work or use of shortcuts and other unethical methods if not properly monitored to not only complete their research within the stipulated period but also to alter the findings in their favor (Jazvac-Martek, 2009). However, considering the importance of literature review in helping doctoral students to fully familiarize themselves with their area of specialization, it is essential to strengthen and encourage continuous literature review among doctoral students in scientific research to ensure they are abreast as well as making the to oblige on embracing ethical standards of the highest level in their study (Titus & Bosch, 2010).
Plagiarism
Horrom (2012) stated that misconducts in research have the potential of severely eroding integrity as well as credibility of the scientific research process as a whole or the validity and reliability of findings. According to Singh & Bennington (2012), plagiarism one of the commonly occurring research misconducts and it involves representing someone’s work as own or using excerpts from works of other without acknowledging the original sources. As a result, this unethical conduct involves generally copying works of other people without acknowledging them, and can severely threaten the credibility of the research ideas and content due to lack of originality (Osei, 2013). Plagiarism is without any doubt among the leading ethical dilemmas that many institutions and students across the world are grappling to prevent or overcome in the dissertation writing phase of a doctoral study (Nancy & Chester-Fangman, 2011). According to Osei (2013), lack of succinct and universal definition of plagiarism as well as standardized ways of avoiding it have been attributed to escalation of this unethical behavior among doctoral students.
Despite the fact that, a small fraction of students do not intentionally engage in plagiarism, it is imperative to underscore that fact that majority of doctoral students implicated in plagiarism usually engage in it deliberately probably to meet the set deadlines (Davis, 2011). Plagiarism is undoubtedly an issue of serious ethical concern which must be discouraged, and in this doctoral study it will be avoided stringent adherence to the guidelines provided by the University on strategies of avoiding plagiarism (Titus & Bosch, 2010). A continuous review and counterchecking of documents will be always carried out to ensure sources of information are acknowledged (Osei, 2013). At Northcentral University plagiarism should be avoided at all costs because can not only affect the integrity of entire research process and the resulting findings as well as posing a risk of being severely penalized or discontinuation from the program (Horrom, 2012; Osei, 2013).
Risk Assessment
Risk assessment is usually an imperative pre-requisite in any empirical research process that involves an evaluation of how all the activities to be carried out during the study can affect the institution, research participants, as well as other students (Levine, 2008). Any impeding risk that is likely to endanger the research process or involved persons will be identified through a self-assessment and appropriate measures to address them implemented, especially during the stages of data collection, entry, processing, analysis and storage (Evans & Combs, 2008). In the proposed study, possible risks include legal disputes, failure to meet the financial obligations, as well as the possibility of the findings obtained from the study being refuted (Koocher & Keith-Spiegel, 2010). Osei (Osei) stated that the most common risk likely to affect doctoral students is plagiarism, and should be avoided at in accordance with established guidelines.
Informed Consent
According to the American Psychological Association (2010), informed consent must be obtained from all human subjects prior to their participation in the research process, and coercion or intimidation should be used to force anyone to participate in a study. Thus, the research participants should voluntarily agree to take part in the study after all information concerning the research process has been disclosed and understood well. Furthermore, the protection of all voluntary research participants from a likelihood of apprehensions and/or retaliations as a result of the information they avail must be guaranteed (Levine, 2008). Prior to seeking informed consent from human subjects, the research will create awareness among every potential participant and ensure each one of them understands the necessary details concerning the entire research process, what their participation will entail as well as any possible risks and how they are addressed (Evans & Combs, 2008). Parental consent must be obtained for participants who have not yet reached the age of 18 years or get the appropriate documents if parental consent cannot be obtained (Osei, 2013); however, this will not be necessary since the proposed study will not include participants below 18 years.
Privacy and Confidentiality
According to Evans & Combs (2008), privacy and confidentiality are used underscore the need for secure storage of gathered information, and despite the interchangeable usage of the two terms a considerable difference is inherent between them. For instance, privacy of collected data regards to a scenario in which an individual has the privilege of controlling the timing, extent or degree, as well as circumstance for sharing with others; whereas confidentiality is concerned with ensuring that the privacy of someone else is protected (Evans & Combs, 2008; Mbanaso, Cooper, Chadwick, & Anderson, 2009; Osei, 2013). Appropriate measures will be implemented to ensure breaches in maintaining privacy and confidentiality do not occur considering that violations of privacy and confidentiality can potentially lead to dire consequences, with the most severe one involving legal redress sought by victims (Levine, 2008). In addition, failure of complying to maintain privacy and confidentially of collected data as outlined in ethical standards established by the university may severely affect the credibility and of the research findings negatively (American Psychological Association, 2010). Restricted access measures such as locking storage rooms and securing storage computers with passwords will be established to make sure that, unauthorized persons cannot in any way access the data collected from research participants (Osei, 2013).
Requirements for IRB Approval
The IRB is delegated with the responsibility of making sure that all research activities within the institution that involve human subjects are carried out in accordance with the framework of the established guidelines and procedures. In order for IRB to approve any research involving human subjects to be conducted, the requirements which must be fulfilled include: (1) there is no any risk exposure to human participants and in case of any significant levels of minimization or mitigation must be attained, (2) a random sampling process that is unbiased and fair is followed to pick the sample of human subjects from the population, (3) the researcher must always obtain informed consent from the human subjects prior to including them in the study, (4) high safety standards are established to protect the human subjects during the research process and the data gathered from them, and (5) protection of privacy as well as confidentiality are assured (Appelbaum, Lidz, & Klitzman, 2009). The IRB approval requirements as outlined in its guidelines and ethical standards must be fulfilled by any student will to conduct a research involving human subjects in any university or research institution across the United States (Osei, 2013). Therefore, the researcher will strive to make sure that necessary approvals from IRB are obtained by fulfilling all the requirements prior to the actual study (Evans & Combs, 2008).
Recommendations and Conclusion
Just as the adage goes “charity begins at home”, ethics are majorly an issue of personal character even though particular sets of ethical conduct that need to be complied with in varied situations. As a result, it is recommended that the institution must regularly update its code of conduct as well as rules and regulations that guide doctoral research. Ethics are undeniably a very crucial component of the doctoral research process, and violation of the set ethical standards should be penalized. This is attributable to the fact that, ethical standards in a doctoral study act as a guideline on how the involved parties relate and it is usually the focal point of the entire process of dissertation research. Ethical standards developed to guide doctoral research process are aimed at ensuring that the research process and findings are credible, trustworthy, reliable and valid, as well as making sure that the rights of the research participants are not violated and unauthorized access to gathered information is minimized or totally avoided. The developed ethical standards should also be imperative in guiding every aspect of the research process carried out by either the student or faculty in addition to complying with rules and regulations. Thus, in order to ensure that the reputation of the institution is safeguarded and credibility or integrity of research findings reported by students in their doctoral thesis, it is important for the university to implement the necessary quality monitoring and control systems to ensure all ethical standards guiding research are complied to and strictly followed. In addition, a stiffer constraint should be introduced inform of severe penalties to discourage doctoral student from engaging in violation of ethical standards.
In conclusion, it is clearly evident that every doctoral student must always comply with necessary ethical standards as well as the appropriate code of conduct established by the university to guide research and study at doctoral level. Failure of compliance with the ethical standards as well as code of conduct established to guide the research process under federal laws should attract severe penalties.
Simons Theory of Bounded Rationality and Defense References
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