Implications of Ethical Dilemmas in Practice

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Implications of Ethical Dilemmas in Practice

One way of broaching the topic of ethics in professional practice is to focus on particular ethical dilemmas that arise in the research or practice that surrounds management activities themselves. For example, well-known ethical dilemmas exist in the field of human resources, and other dilemmas surround the handling of financial transactions and decisions.

Search the Walden Library for a scholarly or practitioner article in a peer-reviewed journal that deals with an ethical dilemma in a management context. How might you research the dilemma presented in the article? Would you examine causation, interventions, solutions, structural issues, or other aspects? Select one or two aspects of the issue presented, and think about how you might formulate a research-oriented approach that would benefit the larger professional practice.

Begin by presenting a brief overview of the article you found. Next, present the ethical dilemma, followed by your research approach and its potential practice-based benefits.

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With these thoughts in mind:

Post your analysis to the Discussion by Day 3. Be sure to include at least two questions to elicit suggestions and responses from your colleagues.

Article !!!! (see below)

Ethics
E-mail and Ethical Issues
Loretta J. Bradley
Bret Hendricks
Texas Tech University

The proliferation of the use of e-mail and texting has created some ethical dilemmas for family counselors. Although e-mail can expand and encourage communication, it is not problem free and, in fact, can pose problems.

There are issues with privacy, confidentiality, and maintaining an appropriate professional relationship. Family counselors should be aware of the promises and pitfalls in using e-mail and related technologies.

Keywords: e-mail; family counseling;confidentiality; ethical dilemmas;counseling relationship

Jason, a family counselor in private practice laments, ‘‘I checked my e-mail today and realized that a client had sent me an e-mail last week about his increasing problems with his family. Until today, I was unaware that he had sent that e-mail. I don’t check my e-mail every day. Now I am wondering if I’m legally liable for answering that e-mail that was sent outside the counseling session?’’ If I do answer that e-mail, will that be considered counseling? If I don’t answer that e-mail, am I ignoring my ethical duty as family
counselor?

In the past decade, e-mail has created new ethical
dilemmas for family counselors. The questions listed above represent a growing body of questions produced by the rapid increase of e-mail use. The proliferation of the use of e-mail and texting has increased to the extent that many clients of family counselors use these methods of communication so
often that verbal communication becomes a lesser preferred mode of communication (Finn, 2006; Fisher & Fried, 2008; Haberstroh, Duffey, Evans, Gee & Trepal, 2007; Walther, 2007). Electronic communication has spawned a new language,
seemingly understood only by those who practice
it. For example, although the word ‘‘texting,’’ a verb, was not seen in Webster’s 2002 Dictionary (Landau, 2002), is now used so frequently that the word is now used as standard English. The phrase ‘‘B hr B4 H gts 2 th crb’’ (‘‘Be here before he gets home’’) presents the reader with a plethora of contextual meanings and misunderstandings while the message is clearly understood by clients who are contemporary e-mail users.
Given the potential ethical and legal issues generated by e-mail, this article is written to explore the ethical concerns posed by e-mail in family counseling. Specifically, this article will focus on the ethical dilemmas generated from the use of e-mail in family counseling while simultaneously trying to answer the question, is e-mail friend or foe? The authors wish to point out that our focus is on e-mail, not internet counseling, which has been addressed recently
in the American Counseling Code of Ethics (American
Counseling Association [ACA], 2005) and earlier in the ACA Standards for Online Counseling (ACA, 1999).

TECHNOLOGY EXPANSION
The past three decades, and especially the last decade, have produced enormous advances in technology. Ten years ago, McMinn, Buchanan, Ellens, and Ryan (1999) described three waves in the advancement of technology. The three were detailed as those technologies that increase office
efficiency, enhance clinical services, and improve new, emerging technologies. The researchers identified the first wave as advances in fax machines, word processors, answering machines, and voice mail machines. Now, 10 years later, the first wave technologies have been integrated into daily work activities. Second wave technologies were defined as advances to enhance test administration, scoring,
and interpretation. McMinn et al. (1999) identified third wave technologies that affect practice. In 1999, when their article was written, the third wave included the use of telephone, e-mail, and chat rooms. Now, in 2009, as the technology horizon has expanded, the division between the first, second, and third wave has blurred because all three waves are entrenched in the work place. Consequently,
Authors’ Note: Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Loretta Bradley, Texas Tech University, COE Box 41071, Lubbock, TX 79409; e-mail:loretta.bradley@ttu.edu.

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e-mail, which was yesterday’s innovative technology, has become today’s ‘‘common’’ technology. In fact, e-mail is the most frequently used Internet resource (Finn, 2006).

E-MAIL EXPANSION
The use of e-mail, which came into existence in 1971,
continues to expand in the United States. In 2001, 57% of Americans responded that they are Internet users (Shaw & Shaw, 2006). Today that percentage has increased to 72.5% (Parks, 2008). The Radicati Group (2009 estimated that the number of e-mails sent daily is approximately 210 billion with individual corporate workers sending an estimated 156 billion per day. The use of e-mail is not limited to a single profession but instead is prevalent in most professions, including counseling. In 2008, 81% of those individuals in the United States reported that they used e-mail at least occasionally (Finn, 2006; Madden & Jones, 2008).
Additionally, according to the Pew Report (2009) of
those who use e-mail, 80% reported that e-mail has
increased their ability to do their job while 58% reported that e-mail has allowed them more flexibility in their work hours. Conversely, workers reported that most of the messages that they receive at work are personal in nature with online shopping reported by 22% of the respondents. With regard to percentages, the Pew report further indicated that
50%of all workers in the United States check their e-mail on weekends with 22% reporting that they checked their e-mail ‘‘often’’ on weekends.
Articles have been written about the expansion of e-mail between business provider and consumer (Armstrong, 2002; Armstrong, Mazzucca, Hansmann, & Groth, 2001; Brynko, 2007; Hoffman, Hartman, & Rowe, 2003; Kelleher & Hall, 2005; Peek, Peek, Roxas, Robichaud, & Blanco, 2007; Sunner, 2005; Womack, Braswell, & Harmon, 2004), counselor and client (Alemi et al., 2007; Bloom, 1998; Caffery & Smith, 2006; Haberstroh et al., 2007; Haslam & Harris, 2004; Shaw & Shaw, 2006; Watson, Jones, & Burns, 2007), lawyer and client (Hricik&Scott, 2007;Walther, 2007), nurse and patient (Caffery, Stewart, & Smith, 2007; Cleary &
Freeman, 2005; DeSantis & Keller, 2007; Edwards, 2008; Kralik, Price, Warren, & Koch, 2006), physician and patient (Brooks & Menachemi, 2006; Constantine, Crane, Noll, Doswell, & Braxter, 2007; Granberry, 2007; Kivits, 2006; Koo & Skinner, 2005; Kuszler, 2000; Nijland, vanGemert- Pijnen, Boer, Steehouder, & Seydel, 2008; Torrance, Lasome, & Agazio, 2002), psychologist and client (Fisher
& Fried, 2008), social worker and client (Finn, 2002, 2006; Parker, 2008), and government (Freeman, 2007).
Since the first e-mail was sent in 1971, e-mail has
evolved and expanded at an unprecedented rate, and there is every expectation that e-mail communication will continue to expand. Although the expansion of e-mail use has been overwhelming, e-mail’s acceptance among users is mixed. E-mail has generally been viewed positively with 72% of workers reporting that e-mail has improved their
ability to do their jobs; conversely, e-mail has been viewed as problematic for about one fourth of workers (Finn, 2006).
Finn reports that a Pew Internet and American Life Project Poll studying e-mail in the workplace found that one fourth of the workers experienced difficulty with e-mail, 22% of workers reported that e-mail caused misunderstandings at work, 28% found e-mail distracting at work, 23% reported e-mail created stress at work, and 16% said e-mail advanced
gossip.

PROBLEMATIC ISSUES
As the Finn (2006) study indicated although e-mail can open up communication, it is not problem free, and in fact can pose problems. Zambroski (2006) cites the following as problems resulting from e-mails. About 2 years ago, a Boston attorney feeling offended by an e-mail from a client forwarded their disagreements via e-mail to a colleague. Little
did he know that this e-mail would spread to the Boston legal community to be eventually aired on ABC’s Nightline News. In another newscast, CNN News ran a story in which they reported that e-mail is ‘‘fodder’’ for litigation. CNN News further reported on e-mails involved in legal issues.
Specifically, a Massachusetts class-action suit was filed over the dangers of the drug combination, Phen-Fen. In that suit, the court allowed an e-mail to be admitted. In this e-mail, the company executive wrote, ‘‘Do I have to look forward to spending my waning years writing checks to fat people worried about a single lung problem?’’ In another
court case, Chevron settled a US$ 2.2M lawsuit that involved an interoffice e-mail giving 25 reasons why beer is better than women. Zambroski concluded his article by encouraging companies to decrease their e-mail vulnerabilities by having an e-mail policy that educates employees about practices involving e-mail in the workplace. In his summary statement, he admonished that e-mail users should not send
an e-mail in anger or haste, and furthermore, he said they should not send personal e-mails from their work accounts.
He encouraged e-mail users to maintain virus protection, encrypt all e-mails, insist on periodic backups, use antivirus protection, and use strong passwords. Although the Zambroski article was written for the business community, its advice is relevant for the counseling community.

COUNSELING AND E-MAIL
E-mail communication between counselor and client
offers opportunities to improve counseling services. That is, e-mail offers a fast, economical method of communication that may serve as a positive adjunct to the family counseling relationship. For example, the time and place to communicate via e-mail are selected by both

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parties. E-mail can help the counselor and client avoid the rush and hasty response that can occur in a telephone conversation.

For both the counselor and client, e-mail can be
a convenient and flexible mode of communication. Unlike a telephone conversation, e-mail information can be printed and filed. Also e-mail is unique in that it provides a comfortable way for the counselor and client to share information.

However, despite its advantages, e-mail has some challenges. Some challenges involve the counseling relationship, confidentiality and privacy, limits to confidentiality in e-mail and counseling, checking e-mail, and the signature.

COUNSELING RELATIONSHIP
Whether the counseling mode is face-to-face family
counseling, e-mail communication or a combination of the two, the counseling relationship is of paramount importance.
To say that the relationship is important is an understatement for indeed it is critical. In order for counseling to be successful, a working alliance (relationship) must be established whereby trust is essential. Just as the relationship must be established and maintained in face-to-face family counseling, the relationship is likewise critical in e-mail communication.

CONFIDENTIALITY AND PRIVACY
The broad category of confidentiality includes privacy information, informational notices, client waiver, records of electronic communication, and electronic transfer of client information (Manhal-Baugus, 2001). There are some risks problematic to confidentiality. In a recent study by Finn (2006), it was reported that 1 in 20 social workers reported that a client’s confidentiality was violated as a result of e-mail. The counselor must acknowledge to the client
that confidentiality cannot be guaranteed. Although
sometimes imperfect, the counselor must take precautions to try to insure confidentiality. For example, the counselor must implement procedures to try to prevent a third party from receiving the information. A common security precaution
is encryption, which is recommended to reduce the risk of disclosure. Also, it is critical that computers are protected by firewall software. Just as in a face-to-face family counseling session, the counselor using e-mail must discuss the limits to confidentiality. Furthermore, both counselor and
client must discuss what is acceptable to send in e-mails.

IS E-MAIL SYNONYMOUS WITH COUNSELING?
An important question is when the family counselor
sends an e-mail, is this e-mail considered counseling? Our response to this question is that if the e-mail involves any aspect of counseling, then it will be viewed as clinical and thus considered as counseling. Possibly one exception is an administrative e-mail in which the counselor merely
gives the time, date, place of the appointment or gives the notice that because of unforeseen circumstances, the office is closed today. The authors believe that if the e-mail is strictly administrative, it is likely not to be viewed as counseling. If, however, the e-mail involves any aspect of counseling, then it will be considered counseling and will therefore become a part of the client’s counseling record.
These records will be subject to the same rules and
procedures, including subpoena, as the other portions of the official record.

FREQUENCY OF CHECKING E-MAIL
If the family counselor gives his or her e-mail address to clients, must that counselor check the e-mail every hour? Every day? Every week? The subject issue here is not how often the counselor must check the e-mail but what has the counselor communicated to the client about how frequently e-mail will be checked. In other words, the family counselor
must inform the client by both written and verbal communication of when e-mails are checked. If the counselor decides to use e-mail communication, the counselor must indicate the policies and procedures regarding e-mail use.
Furthermore, the counselor must inform the client about the limitations (e.g., security, confidentiality, unauthorized readers) of e-mail.

E-MAIL SIGNATURE
While most counselors using e-mail to communicate
with clients often focus on what is written in the body of the e-mail, the authors wish to point out that it is equally important to concentrate on the signature. Zur (2008) concludes that every e-mail sent to a client must contain a signature.
In addition to the typical signature listing names and contact information, Zur states that the signature must include information about such issues as confidentiality, security, privacy, unauthorized access, and intended user. With regard to the notice of confidentiality, Zur states the signature statement should indicate ‘‘this e-mail and any attachments
are intended only for use by the addressee and may
also contain privileged or confidential information’’ (p. 3).
Thus, it is clear that Zur is saying that e-mail involved in counseling must be expanded to include the above items.

DISCUSSION AND SUMMARY
E-mail used by family counselors is an interpretive
endeavor. In this article, the authors used the theme of ‘‘counselor be aware’’ when using e-mail. Furthermore, the authors suggested that the use of e-mail by family counselors is a relatively new process that is in a stage of Bradley, Hendricks / E-MAIL AND ETHICAL ISSUES 269
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‘‘developing.’’ Because the use of e-mail is developing, the authors focused on several ethical dilemmas that counselors cannot overlook. In some instances, the authors were able to give definitive answers, while in other instances, we could
only make suggestions on how to avoid potential ethical and legal problems. While some family counselors may decide to use e-mail communication with clients, others may decide to avoid the use of e-mail. For counselors using e-mail, we believe the counselor should use e-mail as an adjunct to and
not a replacement for face-to-face counseling.
It is important to note that the authors are not attempting to tell the family counselor to use or not to use e-mail in counseling. Instead, we were trying to recommend that if the counselor decides to use e-mail in counseling, then the counselor must be aware of potential ethical challenges.
Regardless of the challenge, the counselor must attend to the welfare of the client. Essentially, this means that the counselor must practice the highest ethical principles at all times. Because it is a given that ethical codes will not address all of the potential ethical issues that may arise, family counselors must be proactive in attempting to foresee and address potential ethical problems. When using e-mail, family counselors must create a written statement pertaining to e-mail communication, which includes policies about e-mail prior to the first e-mail being sent. The written statement, which should be a part of initial informed consent, must be signed by the client. Additionally, family counselors should discuss their e-mail policies with their clients thereby
providing further clarification of the policies in effect. In other words, counselors should not simply assume that clients understand e-mail policies by merely reading the policies; instead, family counselors must discuss their policies regarding e-mail to assure client understanding.

Although most of this article has focused on protection for the client, family counselors must also be aware of the ethical domains that directly affect their own protection. For example, family counselors must decide whether they are going to engage in the use of e-mail at all. If yes, then they must decide the extent to which they will use e-mail.
Additionally, they must examine such issues as, although not limited to, their technological competence, counseling competence, counseling relationship, ethics, and liability.

The authors suggest, in regard to liability, that liability insurance covering e-mail communication with clients be obtained because communication by e-mail is likely to be considered counseling. If e-mail is to be used, even as an adjunct to counseling, family counselors should be aware of current literature concerning e-mail use from other fields outside professional counseling because other professions
are also grappling with similar issues. Furthermore, they might contact family counselors who have used e-mails in counseling. The experience of other professionals will likely provide information to enhance the counselor’s competence.
In summary, e-mail developed from being a simple,
efficient, and inexpensive means of communication for short messages into a broad, complex means of communication that has spanned many areas including counseling. On the basis of issues raised in this and other articles, family counselors are encouraged to learn more about the relevant
ethical and legal issues related to e-mail before services are provided via e-mail.

REFERENCES
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Caffery, L., & Smith, A. (2006). The relation between response time and reutilization of an e-mail based counseling system. Journal of Telemedicine
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Caffery, L., Stewart, S., & Smith, A. (2007). An analysis of the security and privacy of e-mail messages used in e-mentoring. Journal of Telemedicine and Telecare, 13, 24-26.

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Constantine, R., Crane, P., Noll, B., Doswell, W., & Braxter, B. (2007).

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Finn, J. (2002). MSW student perceptions of the efficacy and ethics of internet-based therapy. Journal of Social Work Education, 38, 403-419.

Finn, J. (2006). An exploratory study of e-mail use of direct service social workers. Journal of Technology in Human Sciences, 24, 1-20.

Fisher, C., & Fried, A. (2008). Internet-mediated psychological services and the American Psychological Association Ethics Code. In
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Freeman, E. (2007). E-mail privacy and the wiretap Act: U.S. v. councilman. Information Systems Security, 16, 182-185.

Granberry, N. (2007). Email—From ‘‘to’’ to ‘‘send.’’ Journal of the American Association of Occupational Health Services, 55, 127-130.

Haberstroh, S., Duffey, T., Evans, M., Gee, R., & Trepal, H. (2007). The experience of online counseling. Journal of Mental Health Counseling,
29, 269-282.

Haslam, D., & Harris, S. (2004). Informed consent documents of marriage and family therapists in private practice: A qualitative analysis. American
Journal of Family Therapy, 32, 359-374.

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Kivits, J. (2006). Informed patients and the internet: A mediated context for consultations with health professionals. Journal of Health Psychology,
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Koo, M., & Skinner, H. (2005). Challenges of internet recruitment: A case study with disappointing results. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 7, 1-6.

Kralik, D., Price, K., Warren, J., & Koch, T. (2006). Issues in data generation using e-mail group conversations for nursing research. Journal of
Advanced Nursing, 53, 213-220.

Kuszler, P. C. (2000). A question of duty: Common law legal issues resulting from physician response to unsolicited e-mail inquiries. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 2, 1-17.

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Madden, M., & Jones, S. (2008). Pew internet and American life project poll. Retrieved January 29, 2009, from http://www.pewinter.net.org/
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Manhal-Baugus, M. (2001). E-therapy: Practical, ethical, and legal issues. Cyber Psychology and Behavior, 4, 551-563.

McMinn, M. R., Buchanan, T., Ellens, B. M., & Ryan, M. K. (1999). Technology, professional practice, and ethics: Survey findings and implications.

Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 30, 165-172. Nijland, N., vanGemert-Pijnen, J., Boer, H., Steehouder, M., & Seydel, E. (2008). Evaluation of internet-based technology for supporting selfcare:
Problems encountered by patients and caregivers when using self-care applications. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 10, 13-18.

Parker, J. (2008). E-mail, ethics and data collection in social work research: Some reflections from a research project. Evidence and Policy: A
Journal of Research, Debate, and Practice, 4, 75-83.
Parks, A. (2008). 21% of U.S. heads of households don’t use e-mail, internet.
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com/direct/21-of-US-heads-of-household-dont-use-e-mail-internet-4686/

Peek, L., Peek, G., Roxas, M., Robichaud, L., & Blanco, H. (2007). Team learning and communication: The effectiveness of e-mail based ethical discussions. Business Communication Quarterly, 70, 165-185.
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Shaw, H. E., & Shaw, S. F. (2006). Critical ethical issues in online counseling: Assessing current practices with an ethical intent checklist. Journal
of Counseling and Development, 84, 41-53.

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Torrance, R., Lasome, C., & Agazio, J. (2002). Ethics and computermediated communication: Implications for practice and policy. The Journal of Nursing Administration, 32, 346-353.

Walther, D. (2007). Confounded computers. American Journal of Family Law, 19, 227-228.

Watson, M., Jones, D., & Burns, L. (2007). Internet research and informed consent: An ethical model for using archived e-mails. International Journal of Therapy and Rehabilitation, 14, 396-403.

Womack, L., Braswell, D., & Harmon, K. (2004). E-mail policy enforcement: Techniques and legality. Journal of Accounting and Finance Research, 12, 102-108.

Zambroski, R. (2006, May/June). Think before you send. Communication World, 38-40.

Zur, O. (2008). I love these e-mails, or do I? The use of e-mails in psychotherapy and counseling. Retrieved January 12, 2009, from http:// www.zurinstitute.com/e-mail in therapy.html

Loretta Bradley, Educational leadership & Psychology-Counselor Education Program, Texas Tech University.
Bret Hendricks, Educational leadership & Psychology-Counselor Education Program, Texas Tech University.

SAMPLE ANSWER

Ethical Dilemma

Introduction

People encounter ethical dilemmas in their research and practice that affect their undertakings. Conflicts between moral imperatives lead an individual to obey one decision causing transgression of the others (Serpil, 2012). The author discusses on ethical dilemma concept in practice as presented in an article.

Overview of the article

The article ‘E-mail and Ethical Issues’ by Lorettta Bradley provides an insight to the increased use of email and texting. The article explores on the ethical dilemmas that family counseling face while using e-mail to render their services. Managers as well use this form of communication to reach to their customers as well as to engage in personal issues. This form of communication present various ethical dilemmas and it is important for the users especially counselors to understand these ethical dilemmas to avoid the same. Email is not problem-free and has potential to pose various problems to the customers as well as the managers such as counselors. Some of the issues that characterize email communication include maintaining of professional relationship, privacy and confidentiality.

Ethical dilemma

Various ethical concerns manifest in the article. One of the concerns is using email in maintaining of professional relationship. Emails offer fast and economical method of communication; it therefore can promote family counseling relationships. Family counselor can use this mode of communication to provide these services. However, for counseling to be successful it requires face-to-face and work alliance relationship between the two. This is the appropriate way to achieve trust and as well impact on the counseling. Therefore, it becomes an ethical dilemma when it comes to making decision to provide family counseling using email a supposed to meeting the client face to face.

Confidentiality and privacy of the client and the customer is another ethical dilemma. Client has a right to confidentiality and privacy of information provided through email (Husser, Gautier & André & Lespinet-Najib, 2014). Ethical dilemma arises when it comes to determining what kind of information send through email is considered as private and confidential and which one does not. Furthermore, selecting and categorizing the message from email as relating to counseling or administrative posses ethical dilemma.

It is also important for the family therapist to inform the client when they will check their emails to avoid misunderstanding that may result to ethical dilemma. The family counselor must indicate the procedures and policies regarding use of email as well inform the client on the limitations inherent in use of email such as unauthorized readers, confidentiality and security.

Research oriented approach

A research-oriented approach that would benefit the larger professional practice is evidenced based. This approach would allow collection of systematic data through interview, observation and experiment and testing of hypothesis to reach decisive decisions that would help provide solutions to such ethical problems (Dale, 2005).

Potential practice-based benefits

This practice would accrue various benefits to professional practice. It will provide enough evidence on the issue and scenarios that ethical dilemma occurs. This scope of knowledge will provide an avenue of improvising appropriate measures to avoid ethical dilemma in management practices. Decision making process will improve and the relationships between the family counselor and the clients will improve. Furthermore, this information will be adopted or referenced in many other studies that hence helping accumulate information body that will help practitioners in such situations.

In conclusion, ethical dilemma is challenge and deterrence in delivering quality services. Professionals in various areas or field of management must understand modalities to manage instances of ethical dilemma to avoid conflicts and deliver better services

References

Bradley, L. (2010). E-mail and Ethical Issues, Texas Tech University

Dale, E. (2005). Evidence-based practice: compatibility with nursing. Nurs Stand 19 (40): 48–53.

Husser, J., Gautier, L., & André, J., & Lespinet-Najib, V. (2014).Linking Purchasing to Ethical Decision-Making: An Empirical Investigation. Journal of Business Ethics, 123(2): 327- 338.

Serpil, K. (2012). Ethical Dilemmas Experienced by Psychological Counsellors Working at Different Institutions and Their Attitudes and Behaviours as a Response to These Dilemmas, Educational Sciences: Theory and Practice, 12(3): 1806-1812.

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Unethical Nature of the Internet Essay

Unethical Nature of the Internet

Unethical Nature of the Internet – Private Information

Order Instructions:

– Word Length: Approximately 2400 words
– 1 ½ spacing. (Paragraphs)
– 12 pt font
– Single Sided Paper
– Verdana
– Referencing Style: Harvard or APA is satisfactory.
– Please remember that you will need to have at least Four (4) varying references. For example: Journals, WebPages, Newspaper articles and Text books
– You will need to include: Reference List and an Appendix.

SAMPLE ANSWER

Unethical Nature of the Internet – Private Information

The internet has been widely embraced in the society today, as it has become an indispensable tool of managing communications, interactivity, and connectivity. The discovery of the internet has completely altered the way people live and work specifically in terms of entertainment, shopping and communication. The internet makes it possible for people to live inexpensively by making it possible for them to access news and information (Merkow & Breithaupt, 2002). However, with only a small amount of carelessness, individuals could misappropriate their private information and thereby compromising their security and privacy. This paper analyses the ethical aspects that have been brought about by the internet. First, there is an introduction to the concepts of privacy and ethics. Second, there is a discussion on the ethical issues that surround the internet in the form of privacy in areas of e-commerce, internet search engines, and social networking. Finally, measure to resolve the ethical issues are highlighted for use by the government, internet users and professionals.

Ethical issues on the internet

Ethical actions are those practices that may be termed as acceptable by the general public. One behavior that is regarded as ethical is that of ensuring that the privacy of others is observed (Carroll, 2006). Privacy is the right of doing own things without interference. With the rapid growth of the internet, the gathering, storage, retrieval, and dissemination of personal information has become more inexpensive and efficient. There have been issues that have been raised in regard to the accessibility, and manipulation of private information. If an individual’s private information in uncontrolled in terms of usage, circulation and release, then their privacy has been compromised. The public generally dislikes all actions that would lead to the misappropriation of information of private information. The presence of such possibilities on the internet raises the concerns of internet users with regard to the safety of their private information while they are online. During online shopping, using search engines and logging into social networking websites, private information may be leaked unknowingly.

E-Commerce Websites

In an attempt to offer more personalized services e-commerce websites have increasingly included more personalized features. This has served to create more steadfast relationships with customers. It has also increased online sales significantly on a per-customer basis. Survey data indicates a tendency of individuals to appreciate personalization. On the other hand, it has raised privacy concerns, which range from discomfort especially about search engines offering information about their most frequent purchases to concerns about who may get access to this information, with more specific fears of identity thieves, co-workers and government (Merkow & Breithaupt, 2002). Users are also required to offer their personal data at a website if they need to get personalized services. This raises concerns about the information. Sometimes users may turn down such offers on the basis of their privacy. There are various forms of personalization in e-commerce that are regarded a threat to the privacy of individuals.

Implicit and explicit data collection

Implicit data collection refers to that data, which is inferred based on the user’s habits on the internet (Merkow & Breithaupt, 2002). It is collected based on the queries placed by a user on the internet, browsing history and purchase history and may be used to offer further information to the user.

Explicit data collection, on the other hand, is based on the information that is obtained directly from the user (Merkow & Breithaupt, 2002). The user provides information about his demographics, ratings and preferences. Recommender personalization involves the user by requiring them to rate certain items in the order in which they interest them. Other sites require users to customize their pages according to their personal preferences.

Duration

Session or task focused personalization – This method places adverts on sites that relate to them. Adverts may also be provided based on previous actions. If a user buys items that relate to tennis, more items in the tennis category are presented.

Profile-based personalization – Some personalization systems create user profiles and continually add information that is provided either explicitly or inferentially every time the user visits the website (Merkow & Breithaupt, 2002). Cookies or login details may be used to access the website and to recognize returning users.

User involvement

User initiated-some websites require visitors to select customizations in the form of weather forecasts for their region, stock tickers, or news of interest. Users may also provide information about page layout that best suits them or the bandwidth constraints and require that their web pages are accordingly optimized.

System initiated-Every user has their content customized according to the information they provide either explicitly or inferentially. Users may be allowed to opt out of such customizations (Riedl, 2001).

Reliance on predictions

Prediction based – User’s inferred or explicit ratings may be used by the websites to generate interest based on the profiles of other users. Once the system discovers users with similar profiles, such information may be used to offer recommendation to both users interchangeably (Riedl, 2001). While not all recommendations end up as sales, they make the user get the feeling of being understood.

Content based – If a user expresses interest in one item or makes a request, they may get further recommendations based on such requests (Scassa, 2014). The request is used as a basis for determining other related likes so that the retailer attempts to satisfy them.

Privacy Risks

Some sites use a variety of these methods to maximize user experience. A good example of such sites is Amazon. There are various ways that e-commerce poses risk to user privacy (Carroll, 2006).

First, there is unsolicited marketing on the internet. While unsolicited market may be one of the less severe risks on the internet, it is still among one of the most mentioned risks on the internet (Fritsch, 2013). The risk therefore amounts to a sufficient concern for users who do not want unwarranted marketing. It has even led to the decision by some users not to engage in e-commerce. Users are also concerned that the information provided by them during purchases may be used to make targeted communication or may be made to other companies to make use of on targeted marketing campaigns. Furthermore, users fear that as a company gets access to more of their private information, it may get more interested in advertising to them.

Individuals are also uncomfortable about the automated nature of customization on the internet. Sometimes as websites try to figure out the needs of their users, they figure out needs that are completely uninformed (Levmore & Nussbaum, 2010). In some cases, individuals are not comfortable with the possibility of the information of such advertisements getting into the wrong hands and drawing wrong conclusions. Regardless of whether the company makes such wrong inferences, some people are simply uncomfortable with the possibility of being ‘watched’.

Secondly, price discrimination is another problem that arises from information given online. While there are possibilities that both the company and the consumer benefit from price discrimination, the response of consumers to price discrimination is more often negative (Jakubiak, 2010). Consumers are often concerned about both the aspect of being treated differently from other people and that of being charged more highly. Price discrimination also involves the diversion of more private information.

Thirdly, there is risk that user information is accessed by other users on the same computer (Riedl, 2001). Once a computer user accesses a website using login details, the computer is able to keep the private information in the form of cookies such that other users may be use the computer to access the website unheeded.

There is also the risk of the information in the phone being used against them in a court of law. Internet records are increasingly being used as evidence in a wide variety of cases. In cases where the character of the user is questionable, the information in user profiles, the content of their posts and their purchases may be used against them.

Information Privacy in Social Networking

Social networking is another great invention that is associated with the internet. Social networking sites allow individuals to create personal profiles and share such information publicly (Levmore & Nussbaum, 2010). While considering putting such information online, the user must consider the level of privacy that the user is diverging. If the individual fails to utilize the privacy settings when posting such information, their privacy is compromised. In such cases, any internet user is able to access their information without restrictions. The user is however able to use the privacy settings to limit the number of people who have access to every part of their profiles.

The real concern starts when individuals allow strangers or people who would not be trusted with their private information to access it (Levmore & Nussbaum, 2010). If there is no proper control of private information, there may be unethical attempts to use it. The risks may include blackmailing, price discrimination, embarrassment, physical stalking, and identity theft (Solove, 2007).

As noted above, one of the risks associated with social networking is stalking. A social networking profile contains information about the home location as well as the location of individual posts (Jakubiak, 2010). Users may also opt to share their location and hence expose themselves to burglary, robbery or even harassment. The possibilities that such information may be used to the advantage of criminals makes social media an ethical issue.

Information Privacy in Search Engines

Social networking sites are required to provide users with links to websites that contain information that is relevant to them. The topics vary with the interests of the user in regard to what information they need (Jakubiak, 2010). Search engines also make it possible for one to access private information that is placed on any platform online. People however are uninformed that their private information is contained on the database. Even in situations where the user is aware of such information being available on the database, their privacy is compromised when their information is obtained for unethical reasons.

The use of search engines further gets complicated as it even makes available some information whose privacy is limited. Such information includes membership of certain groups on social media even in cases where membership is limited (Levmore & Nussbaum, 2010). If the user was unwilling to share that information, then their information is compromised. Furthermore, such information may be used against them in different scenarios.

Measures to counter the ethical implications on the internet

As shown above, the internet has many ethical implications. While it may be used to do activities that are valuable to individuals and to the society at large, it also comes with a variety of challenges in information privacy (Levmore & Nussbaum, 2010). There are three major parties that must get involved in the process of controlling the problem of information privacy on the internet.

First, the government should create legislations intended for the management of various aspects of the internet. Governments should create legislations that limit the manner in which private information may be obtained and shared without their permission (Levmore & Nussbaum, 2010). Legislations will also aid to mend the damage done by carelessness at personal levels. If a global privacy policy is generated (probably with the assistance of the UN) the public will stand better protected from information privacy issues.

Self-protection by users

Users cannot rely solely on government legislations to deal with the issue of information privacy. It is also important that users participate in the process of self-protection by taking a variety of measures:

Private information should only be provided consciously to websites. Users should explore the purpose for which their information is required on a website and whether such information will be shared with other entities.
It is important that users use privacy settings to limit the accessibility of their private information. Furthermore, users should limit the information shared on these websites to limit their vulnerability on the internet.

Apply complex and varied passwords to protect personal information on websites on the internet. This will limit access of personal profile information and associated elements. It will also limit the number of profiles a hacker is able to hack.

Enhance security measures by using firewalls and browsers to limit accessibility of privacy information.

Professionals

Professionals can also aid in minimizing the impact of information privacy on the internet. They should minimize the amount of information provided as well as the ways in which they use the personal information so obtained (Jakubiak, 2010). They should ensure that they do not get into the middle of privacy conflicts, as this is capable of limiting the deliverability and even removal from their job positions for being either unethical or controversial.

Professionals should also practice various measures to ensure that user information is secured:

Enable collection of specific information that is important for them
Ensure that information is updated by users every once in a while to eliminate to ensure that the information in their possession is accurate

Ensure proper communication about the use of the collected information and then only ensure that information is only used for the intended intentions.

In conclusion, the internet is an important tool in our everyday lives. It should, therefore, be managed and controlled to ensure that it will be in use for a long time. The information presented by internet users should also be managed to ensure that user data is always fully secured. The internet has become a threat to information privacy. This has become an ethical issue in that some private information may be misappropriated. Various platforms pose a risk to privacy on the internet. These include e-commerce, search engines and social media. To resolve the issue, various parties should be involved. The government should create regulations to govern the internet and the way the information is collected and shared online. Individuals should increase their awareness of internet risks so as to avoid them. Finally, professionals should promote ethical practice to avoid conflict with their employers, the law and the public.

References

Carroll, J. (2006). Privacy. Detroit: Greenhaven Press.

Fritsch, L. (2013). The Clean Privacy Ecosystem of the Future Internet. Future Internet, 5(1), 34-45. doi:10.3390/fi5010034

Jakubiak, D. (2010). A smart kid’s guide to Internet privacy. New York, NY: PowerKids Press.

Levmore, S., & Nussbaum, M. (2010). The offensive Internet. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.

Merkow, M., & Breithaupt, J. (2002). The E-Privacy imperative. New York: AMACOM.

Nazario, J., & Kristoff, J. (2012). Internet Infrastructure Security. IEEE Security & Privacy Magazine, 10(4), 24-25. doi:10.1109/msp.2012.99

Riedl, J. (2001). Personalization and privacy. IEEE Internet Comput., 5(6), 29-31. doi:10.1109/4236.968828

Scassa, T. (2014). Privacy and Open Government. Future Internet, 6(2), 397-413. doi:10.3390/fi6020397

Solove, D. (2007). The future of reputation. New Haven: Yale University Press.

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The Ethics of Journalism Assignment

The Ethics of Journalism

Order Instructions:

Write 300 words about the ethics of journalism using the information attached to the order.

SAMPLE ANSWER

The Ethics of Journalism

Ethics refers to a set of prescriptive virtues, values, principles and rules of character which inform and guide intrapersonal and interpersonal conduct, that is, the conduct of people toward each other and toward themselves. Aristotle viewed character as a quality that could help a person in making a persuasive argument. Before character, it is important to start with duty, which is one of the key defining features of ethics (Breit, 2011).

From a deontological perspective, good actions are determined by obligations and duties, regardless of consequences. Deontological theories consist of various approaches including social contract, rights theory, and traditional duty theory; the prima facie duties and the categorical imperative. Immanuel Kant emphasized the aspect of reason as a basis of morality, that focuses on rational decision-making in order to show what a person should do whether the action is universal, in respect for persons or in respect for the autonomy of others (Breit, 2011).

Utilitarianism is considered the most influential consequentialist theory of ethics. Jeremy Bentham suggested that an action, intention of principle must be judged by its overall immediate outcomes. From a consequentialist perspective, there has been a shift from the individual, not to a group, but to rather an elite, who is in a position of relative power. Before carrying out a certain action, a journalist asks himself such things as whether the intended action might cause harm, whether someone will be denied legal or moral rights, and whether everyone in the situation has been treated impartially.

The human aspects of journalism and public relations have a close connection to the ethic of care, which emphasizes the value of empathy for others and human relationships. Thus, when responding to an ethical problem, a care ethicist needs to determine whether the action was genuinely related to the needs of others. The focus in ethical decision making is on understanding others that is, acknowledging the needs of others and caring responsively, competently, and responsibly (Breit, 2011).

Reference

Breit, R. (2011). Professional Communication: Legal and Ethical Issues, 2^nd ed. Lexis Nexis, Butterworths: Australia.

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Ethical Motive Research Paper Assignment

Ethical Motive

Order Instructions:

Motives are a key consideration in ethical decision making. This assignment challenges you to apply the author’s four-step process as a tool to determine your motives.

Applying this knowledge is a good first step toward building the skills necessary to complete this same type of process when analyzing your motives at work or your organization’s motives in ethical decision making, designing social responsibility programs, and formulating organizational policy.

The author offers a four-step approach to analyzing your ethical motives. In this assignment, prepare answers to the four steps outlined.

Step 1: Describe an ethical dilemma that you recently experienced. Be detailed: What was the situation? Who did it involve? Why? What happened? What did you do? What did you not do? Describe your reasoning process in taking or not taking action. What did others do to you? What was the result?

Step 2: Read the descriptions of relativism, utilitarianism, universalism, rights, justice, and moral decision making. Explain which principles best describes your reasoning and your action(s) in the dilemma you presented in Step 1.

Step 3: Were you conscious that you were reasoning and acting on these (or other) ethical principles before, during, and after your ethical dilemma? Explain.

Step 4: Would you have acted differently in your dilemma than you did? Explain.

SAMPLE ANSWER

Ethical Motive

Step 1: An ethical situation that I faced was when working on a part-time basis as a sales person in a certain firm dealing in beauty products. I discovered that the beauty products I was selling contained a chemical substance that was harmful to the skin of the users. Though the company and all the employees in the company were aware of the fact that the products were harmful, there was a code of silence so that nobody was expected to inform the clients about the consequences of using the products. Therefore, I did not also tell the clients about the harmful chemicals in the products. My reasoning was in line with the code of silence within the organization that made employees reluctant to tell clients the truth. As a result, the company continued to sell the harmful products to the clients.

Step 2: The principle that best describes my reasoning and actions in the dilemma presented in Step 1 is ethical relativism which holds that there is no universal standard or rule that can be used in guiding or evaluating the morality of an act. According to relativism, people set their own moral standards for judging their actions. In this regard, I acted in line with my own moral standards which were guided by the code of silence in the institution. I also acted on the principle of utilitarianism in the context of maximum benefits for the maximum number within the organization. I felt that telling the clients the truth about the chemicals in the products would put the clients off and the organization would not make the desired benefits and the employees would be less paid and they would not be happy with my actions.

Step 3: I was conscious that I was reasoning and acting on these ethical principles during the ethical dilemma. I wanted to make a decision that would not hurt the company and my fellow employees; therefore I felt that concealing the truth from clients to attract more sales was for the good of the organization.

Step 4: I would have acted differently in the dilemma than I did because I could have broken from dependency to become independent in my decisions and make the right moral judgment as to balancing between the responsibility of the institution and the rights of clients to be sold safe products. I could have appreciated the principle of interpersonal leadership that involves building relationships through cooperation, based on a sense of integrity and moral maturity (Weiss, 2008).

Reference

Weiss, J. (2008). Business ethics: a stakeholder and issues management approach. Cengage Learning. https://zodml.org/sites/default/files/%5BJoseph_W._Weiss%5D_Business_Ethics_A_Stakeholder_a_0.pdf

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Ethical principles of the global business standards codex

Order Instructions:

using three of ethical principles of the global business standards codex, two arguments, one counter argument to write. Ethical principles of the global business standards codex :

1 – Fiduciary Principle:
Is concerned with money and finances
Each officer has a legal fiduciary duty to act in the best interests of the stakeholders and other employees within the firm.
An implied fiduciary duty for every employee to act in a way that generates positive benefits for the firm.
• Examples: conflicts of interest, good faith efforts for carrying out responsibilities. Prudence with the company’s resources, loyalty.

2 – Property Principle:

• Based on the belief that every employee should respect property as well as the rights of the owners of the property.
• Expected that the employee should be a good steward to the resource that he/she has access to.
• Examples: theft, misappropriation of funds, wasting resources, misappropriation of intellectual property

3 – Reliability Principle:

• Based on the belief that it is the employee’s responsibility to honor the commitments he or she has made to the firm.
• Examples: breaching a promise or contract, not fulfilling a promised action, ensuring that suppliers and other business partners are paid in a timely manner.

4 – Transparency Principle:

• Based on the belief that every employee should conduct business in a truthful and open manner.
• Assumes that employees will not make decisions based on a personal agenda.
• Examples: keep accurate and current records of business obligations, fraudulent and deceptive actions of the employee, financial information is presented in a truthful and accurate way
5 – Dignity Principle:
• Based on the belief that each employee needs to respect the dignity of all individuals.
• Encourages the enhancement of human development not only within the company and the marketplace, but also in the society at large.
• Examples: ensuring the human rights of health, safety and privacy.

6 – Fairness Principle:

• Based on the belief that stakeholders who have a vested interest in the firm should be treated fairly.
• Reciprocal fairness
• Fair exchange – getting paid a fair wage for an honest days work.
• Distributive fairness
• Equity – all groups (sex, gender etc.) get paid the same for the same work)
• Wages are distributed fairly amongst the various positions in the organisation
• Fair competition
• Avoiding price wars, bribery and collusion.
• Procedural fairness
Stakeholders are treated fairly and whistleblowers are protected
7 – Citizenship Principle:
• Based on the belief that every employee should act as a responsible citizen in the community.
• Expected that employees respect the laws of the community – criminal, competition, environmental, corporate social responsibility.
• Examples: Taking a universalist approach and doing the right thing even when no one is looking.

8 – Responsiveness Principle:

• Based on the belief that employees have a responsibility to respond to the requests for information about the operations from various stakeholders.
• Expected to react in a timely manner.
• Examples: disclosing who your suppliers are or how your goods are being produced.

using at least 3 out 5 materials i gave.
Louw et al.(2007)?

http://web.b.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.uws.edu.au/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=dbec7851-17fc-4d2a-b42d-4a1a83d815ab%40sessionmgr110&vid=1&hid=112

Richards et al.(2012)?

http://web.b.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.uws.edu.au/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=bee9224c-6159-4f92-9b3a-508c63c84ac2%40sessionmgr111&vid=1&hid=112

Round (2006)?

http://web.b.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.uws.edu.au/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=2550408d-253f-4077-83b3-e6a36cbac68f%40sessionmgr114&vid=1&hid=112

Smith & Barrientos (2005)?

http://web.b.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.uws.edu.au/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=c576db89-8bcd-4ecc-ab19-6620dd268ee8%40sessionmgr110&vid=1&hid=112

Smith (2010)?

http://web.b.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.uws.edu.au/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=9189fe10-c1d1-455a-9389-fa142f4d84c3%40sessionmgr113&vid=1&hid=112

SAMPLE ANSWER

Introduction

Codex was established by two United Nation’s Organization, FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization) and the World Health Organization (WHO) in the year 1963. Codex is the organization that establishes the international standards for food. Codex provides the guidelines that promote and implement the fair trade practices in the food trade. The principles of Global Business Standards Codex govern the entire fair trade practices in all business universally. This paper evaluates the fair-trade practices in the fresh food industry especially in the context of the value chains that enhance the supermarket business operations. Supermarkets provide useful and informative materials on fair and ethical trade practices that complement the basic concepts quality as applied in the convention theory. (Gereffi 1994)

Fairness Principle

Fairness principle stems from fair trade which refers to a trading partnership that’s based on transparency, dialogue, respect and equity in the international trade. The association of fair trade major objective is to facilitate fairness even to the small traders or producers in the international market by providing guarantees and fair trading terms and prices, access to credit, stable supply relationships and other fair conditions for their produce in the international market. (Smith & Barrientos 2005) Large multinational organizations have been known to frustrate the growth of smaller companies in the emerging markets in the hope of minimizing any threats to their business operations and profitability. (Vorley 2004)

Fairtrade is principally concerned with business terms and prices between the producers and buyers, the ethical trade main concern is the working environment of the workers. The conditions like favorable working environment, good ventilation and adequate sunlight or visibility. Ethical trade ensures that the employers provide safe and comfortable working environment for all the employees. (Lee & Billington 1992) For many years, workers in the supermarkets were overworked and their counterparts in the factories worked under very poor working conditions like in the agricultural, garment and foot-ware industries. (Dolan & Humphrey 2004)

The impersonal capitalist markets and the characteristics of the unfair trading practices that dominated the international market in the early 1960’s that marginalized most producers were greatly challenged by the introduction of the fair-trading practices. (Murray & Raynolds 2000)

Reliability Principle

Reliability principle is hard to address when the buyers exert pressure on the suppliers to deliver goods on time with such instruments as insecure supply contracts, shortening lead times, falling prices and irregular orders of goods. These suppliers offset their costs by passing on the loses to the poor workers who have to work through short term contracts, increased workloads, low wages and impromptu long periods of work with unpredictable rates of overtime compensation. These practices are in direct violation of the codes that buyers and suppliers are supposed to promote and which the buyers insist that the suppliers must adopt and implement positively. The labor laws that the suppliers are supposed to honor are difficult to implement because of the harsh trading terms that the buyers insists on the suppliers to adopt. (Halbenwang 2004)

For many years, the South African Grocery market favored large and well established suppliers whose reliability can’t be matched with the small suppliers hence the ineffectiveness in the application of the equity principle. (Louw, Vermeulen, Kirsten & Madevu 2007) To guarantee the small supplier’s consistency on food quality, safety and volumes is very difficult due to competition from the large producers hence the apparent discrimination. (D’Haese & Huylenbroeck 2005)

However, the brands that are popular and available are not necessarily the best in terms of quality as most consumers rely heavily on the information available from the media through advertisement and other sources of information. Smith & Barrientos (2005) contends that the information available to the public is mostly limited and the imbalance that exists between the consumers and the retailers is associated with the search costs that may be prohibitive and unaffordable hence the customers may not be in a position to discover and also compare the food prices and services at all levels of each individual value chain. The brand loyalty ones created can attract more customers by virtue of the market power that the brand name has on the consumers.

The vertical market power that exists in big chains and brand names makes the fair trade play second fiddle as they can use their economies of scale to influence the prices that are payable by final consumer and also they can minimize or influence the prizes negatively that are receivable by the raw material suppliers. The Australian market has positive attributes but double marginalization arises where two companies that are vertically adjacent can seek or scheme to maximize their profits. (Cotterill 2006)

These activities may raise the prices of the retail markets, lower the supply profit or limit the final output. These inadequacies can be addressed by applying the vertical integration where a particular chain cannot be allowed to buy all the suppliers or allow a supermarket to dominate and monopolized the sales of a supplier. The private label companies can be utilized to minimize double marginalization.

Dignity Principle

The principles of human rights have to be adhered to in an organization. The rights of the employees to have a safe and secure working environment that is well ventilated and well lit is mandatory. The dignity of the workers have to respected by offering competitive compensation and also treating all the employees fairly without any discrimination based on gender, color, race, disability or nationality. According to the fair trade practices, all the employees should be compensated adequately and their working environment and conditions must be acceptable and standardized. The workers are entitled to a safe working environment that is well lit and ventilated. (Young 2003) Fair trade ensures that the employers provide safe and comfortable working environment for all the employees. For many years, workers in the retail outlets and supermarkets were overworked, underpaid while others in the factories worked under very poor working conditions like in the shoe factories, agricultural sector and the shoe industries. All the employees have a right to a dignified treatment under the fair trade agreements.

For the consumers, the fair trade allows the consumers to have an opportunity to choose branded products from the international markets. The small scale producers and suppliers are given equal opportunities to participate in the market and trade openly with other big players in the market. The multi-actor approaches as illustrated by Louw et al (2007) confirms the importance of the fair trade practices that aim at reducing the bottlenecks that are in the supply chain and which promote the collective actions that facilitate equity and competitiveness.

References

Murray D, Raynolds L., 2000, Alternative trade in bananas: obstacles and opportunities for progressive social change in the global economy. Agriculture and Human Values 17: 65–74.

Gereffi G., 1994, Capitalism, development and global commodity chains. In Capitalism and Development, Sklair L (ed.).Routledge: London; 211–231.

Vorley, B., 2004, Food Inc. Corporate Concentration from Farm to Consumer. UK Food Group: London.

Young, G., 2003, Fair Trade’s Influential Past and the Challenges of its Future. King Baudouin Foundation: Belgium.

Dolan C, Humphrey J., 2004, Changing governance patterns in the trade in fresh vegetables between Africa and the United Kingdom. Environment and Planning 36(3): 491–509.

D’Haese, M & Van Huylenbroeck, G., 2005, The rise of supermarkets and changing expenditure patterns of poor rural households: a case study in the Transkei area, South Africa. Food Policy, 30: 97–113.

Louw, A., Vermeulen, H., Kirsten, J. and Madevu, H., 2007, Securing Small Farmer Participation in Supermarket Supply Chains in South Africa, Development of Southern Africa, 24:4, 539 – 551.

Smith, S., & Barrientos, S., 2005, Fair Trade and Ethical Trade: Are There Moves Towards Convergence, Sustainable Development, Sust, Dev. 13, 190 – 198. Wiley InterScience, online publication, www.interscience.wiley.com. Doi: 10.1002/sd.277

Halbenwang, B.B (Ed.) 2004, Urbanisation trends in South Africa. Social Environment, Vol. 9, April. Institute for Futures Research, University of Stellenbosch.

Lee, H.L. & Billington, C., 1992, Managing supply chain inventory: pitfalls and opportunities. MIT Sloan Management Review, 33(3): 65.

Cotterill, R.W. (2006). Antitrust analysis

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Ethics and social justice Term Paper

Ethics and social justice

Order Instructions:

For the Final Project for this course, select any government or nonprofit organization for which there is sufficient information to allow a thorough analysis of ethical or social justice issues. You may select your own organization if it is a government or nonprofit organization, but be aware of the need for scholarly objectivity and the need to protect confidentiality. Ethical researchers never begin any project with a hidden agenda or predetermined conclusion. If you do choose your own organization, do not identify it by name or precise location.
Your Final Project should include the following:

1) An introduction that describes the government or nonprofit organization, the setting, and any other information about the organization or related background that readers need in order to understand the organization and its ethical and social justice issues; a description of the ethical issues facing the organization and public administrators within the organization
2) An explanation of the ethical issues related to two or more of the philosophical theories that this course introduces
3) A summary of the major ethical challenges and conflicts of responsibility presented to individuals in the organization and to the organization as a whole
4) A summary of the strategies that the organization uses to maintain responsible conduct
5) An explanation of your recommendations for addressing the issues, including a rationale for your recommendations and an explanation of why they might be effective in addressing the issues, with consideration given to the possible involvement of guerrilla government employees
6) An analysis of the factors that would affect the implementation of the recommendations by using the ethical decision-making model
7) A description of the outcomes you would expect if the organization implemented your recommendations
8) An explanation of how the issues you raised are related to at least two of the four social justice themes (human rights, equality, liberty, and justice)

Your Final Project must demonstrate both breadth and depth of knowledge and critical thinking appropriate to graduate-level scholarship.

It must follow APA Publication Manual guidelines and be free of typographical, spelling, and grammatical errors.

The project should be 13–15 pages in length (double-spaced), not including the title page, abstract, and at least 8–10 scholarly resources, excluding any organizational brochures or other nonacademic sources.

Support your Final Project with specific references to all resources used in its preparation.

SAMPLE ANSWER

Ethics and social justice

Abstract

The National Education Association is the largest professional organization, and as well as labor union within the United States. It represents the public school teachers as well as many other support staff working in colleges and universities, including students who are studying to become teachers and the retired individuals. It is a volunteer based organization established in 1857, and was previously known as the National Teachers Association. It has undergone significant changes over the years such as including women as members, changing the name and generally improving its function. Unfortunately, there have also been negative changes, with the organization loosing focus of what is supposed to be its main function or reason for existence. This paper analyses the various ethical issues facing this volunteer organization which include oppressing the philosophical theories of republican and negative liberty, it is not for the good of all in terms of “equality”, and violating the rights of Libertarians.

Introduction

Within the United States, the National Education Association is the largest professional organization, as well as labor union, as it represents public school teachers alongside other support personnel, the faculty and staff from colleges and universities, students who are studying to become teachers, as well as the already retired members. This volunteer based organization was established back in 1857, during which it was known as National Teachers Association. However, in 1870, the name was reformed to National Education Association. Initially, women were not members, however before the change in name, the rule was changed and they were now allowed to also become members. The organization mainly relies on its members to finance the Association’s work. After this incorporation, the NEA has played a major role in ensuring many positive changes for teachers and students. The purpose of the union supporting these changes was so they could grant people human and civil rights. For example, they advocated against American Indians’ forced assimilation and child labor. They were able to stop these by using research to prove to the states’ legislatures that such institutions were negatively impacting children’s education (NEA, 2011). At this era, the NEA was indeed a true advocate for children.

In the 1920s, the United States experienced a period of teacher shortage, and since this was part of the organization’s role, NEA researched on the possible reasons for such an outcome. The results of their research showed that being overloaded with work, poor wages, and having many students of different ages, some of whom could not speak English, were the main reasons for many abandoning the teaching sector. Therefore, NEA recommended to the government that the situation may be salvaged when a Department of Education is put in place. This department would have a role of regulating school curriculum, training teachers, and hence improving the quality of education offered to the students. For almost ten years after this situation, This organization tried to increase the salaries of teachers so as to ensure they were comfortable with their work. Soon, the Depression came into full force, and the organization signed for membership into the Federal Advisory Committee on the Emergency in Education section. The main purpose of this committee was to ensure that schools received assistance since it routed federal aid towards them (NEA, 2011).

Later, in 1926, NEA formed yet another committee with the American Teachers Association (ATA), previously known as National Association of Teachers in Colored Schools (NATCS). This Joint Committee was aimed towards justice. Its primary goal was to improve the quality of education offered for blacks. This would be achieved through various objectives such as accrediting and acknowledging black schools. This was not all, the NEA also made a brave step by taking a stance against the Japanese/ American internment camps. During this time, soldiers were prohibited from leaving their camps in search of further education. However, after the NEA greatly supported the G.I Bill of Rights, soldiers who wanted to further their education were enabled to do so after the war. According to statistics, this Bill of rights paved room for more individuals to attend college, a number that had never been witnessed before (NEA, 2011). Higher education became for all, and not just for the wealthy people. As a result of the organization’s continued advocacy for the minorities, a Bilingual Education Act of 1968 was passed. In 1984, NEA also triggered the creation of a federal retirement equity law (NEA, 2011).

Ever since the inception of the NEA, ethical and social justices have been the major drivers. This is still the case, as noted by how the organization supports Minority Community Outreach, Priority Schools Campaign, and how they encourage the reform of Social Security Offsets. However, it has recently been on the spotlight for various reasons. They are discouraging merit pay, are against the No Child Left Behind Act, and are also opposing the charter schools. The National Education Association seems to have changed from what was its earlier stance regarding the educational excellence and advocacy. It is now turning into a powerful political union.

The ethical and social justice issues facing this organization include educational reform and access to education. Improving the quality of education is a major concern for most individuals. However, for this to happen, an educational reform must take place. Ever since this organization lost focus, its role in the education department has also become confusing. They are no longer advocating for children to get education, or to improve the quality of education. As a matter of fact, all the three Acts mentioned above, that NEA is against, are all reform ideas supposed to improve the quality of education for all children. The NEA is a liberal organization; however the same cannot be justified for its members. This is because they are being influenced by the conservative thoughts. The NEA, therefore, is against education reform, and so are the members. Unfortunately some of the members are not aware of what the organization’s views are. They have not yet realized that the union leaders, who are mainly said to be liberal, are at the fore front in making biased decisions.

Issues Related to Philosophical Theories

No Child Left Behind

The No Child Left Behind Act is one that will ensure schools become accountable. It is relative to the Theory of Action, one which enhanced educational reform in Texas, while the leader was Governor George W. Bush. This theory strictly requires accountability, transparency, and choice. The No Child Left Behind Act involves a plan which expects any member within the education field to be accountable. It also requires any data and information about schools, test results, performance analysis and others, to be availed to anyone who needs it, including parents (Bland, 2014). In this plan, parents should be given more choice in determining their child’s education. By implementing this Act, the National Education Association became worried that the government would get an opportunity to shame or embarrass them by harassing them. Additionally, they disagreed with the government on empowering parents as they felt that it would inhibit their roles as teachers. The Act is designed to decrease some of National Education Association abilities of controlling education and politics, thus the organization’s aim was to restrain accountability and parental involvement. Hence, propaganda to misinform the public was developed. The organization sabotaged the supporters of the No Child Left Behind Act at town hall meetings by planting their leaders amongst them to interrupt speakers with aggressive comments and then denounce the idea (Smyth, 2008).

Merit Pay

A poll was prepared by the Democratic Leadership Council to take statistics on the number of democrats, republicans, and independents who would support the merit pay for teachers. The results were overwhelming with 60% democrats, 65% republicans, and 73% independents (Hoff, 2008). This is proof that the country indeed has a great desire to make the change However; this is a threat to unions because membership enrollments will be affected if teachers quit the sector as the union will lose money. An issue to be noted is how most of the teachers who are members of the union are actually being forced to pay up the union dues, and more of them do not even want to be member’s anymore. The union subjects teachers from different states to unfair conditions. For instance, they are all expected to pay a uniform amount, despite the fact that their payments may differ from one state to the other. The performances of teachers also differ, and thus they cannot all be subjected to the same payments. Some are way better and more experienced than others. Therefore, having a uniform payment will hinder teachers from wanting to aim for higher levels since there will be no distinction (Wright, 2003). In this field, there are many excellent teachers who are working alongside the ineffective and those who do not care. This, however, does not affect their payments as it is still the same for all of them.

Charter Schools

In the present environment, the National Education Association and the American Federation of Teachers (AFT), do not pay great attention to the under-performing traditional schools. This is because by doing so, they will not be getting any benefits and they also do not want the public to see what is happening. However, if the under performing institution is a charter school, all focus will be on it (Prothero, 2014). This is a very unfortunate situation because the country needs diverse schools to ensure that the needs of diverse students are also met fully. As a matter of fact, the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) data pointed that the learning of minorities has increased far more in private and religious schools, compared to the situation in traditional schools (Shober, Manna & Witte, 2006). This is because there are more minority enrollments in charter schools than in traditional schools. There is also proof that charter schools thrive because they are not controlled by unions, while traditional schools controlled by unions do not last. It has also been noted that charter schools empower teachers and principals, while unions are against such an action. To effectively hinder the action of charter schools in the states, the union tagged on some political strings so they could get funding for the high priced smear campaigns meant to undermine charter schools (Antonucci, 2010).

Ethical or Social Justice Issues in Terms of Philosophical Theories

By resisting the No Child Left Behind Act, the NEA is also oppressing the philosophical theories of republican and negative liberty. There is a violation of the republican liberty of the institution of schools since there is a greater chance that the NEA will keep on interfering and taking steps to mitigate the progress of the NCLB. The negative liberty will always be in jeopardy since the institution of education will never be free to make any choices without being influenced by the NEA in the name of “equality” (Wright, 2003).

This union formed by teachers is supposed to benefit all the people involved, including the children. The idea of teachers being given an equal pay can be related to the positive theory of value and action, therefore it can also be given a utilitarian thought. However, since it does not consider children, it is not for the good of all in terms of “equality”.

The Union’s opposition to charter schools may be viewed by Libertarians as a violation to their rights. Parents must always have the freedom of choice, especially when it comes to deciding what may be best for their children, including deciding which schools to take their children (Wright, 2003). Therefore, the NEA has a moral obligation of ensuring this right is upheld, especially since it is basically an education association. Hence, parents literally own the schools and should choose according to their preference in what is known as “libertarianism”.

Major Ethical Challenges and Conflicts of Responsibility

Ethical behavior, within an organization culture can only be instilled through internal and external controls. Internal controls are achieved by promoting ethical conduct through encouraging professional development within the members. It is important for all members of an organization to be informed of the new ways of being ethic, and also teaching them to identify what is right from wrong. Professional development is one way of achieving this outcome since members of the organization will improve their skills as well the general knowledge of ethics. External control focuses on policies and laws. These formed policies and laws show the members of an organization what is right and expected of them, and what is wrong that they should avoid at all costs. If an organization can achieve a balance of these two controls, then a positive outcome should be expected. It is important to first look at the individuals involved as well as the organization as a whole. This consideration defines the policies formed within an organization. Policies are basically a definition of what one can do and cannot do. Hence, the leaders of the organization should be elected to create and uphold these policies (Prothero, 2014). This means that they should be individuals who can model the appropriate behaviors in members. The organizational culture affects the policy making process, and at times it can be more effective than the internal and external controls, as well as the organization’s accountability structure. Hence, the leader is the most influential individual and has the capability of impacting the culture, which is very powerful on its own and can instill ethical behavior amongst members (Shober, Manna & Witte, 2006).

Therefore, this organization is greatly challenged by the fact that its leaders are not actually the most appropriate individuals for the position. They are confused about what their true responsibility to the organization is all about. This is why the union can presently be misinterpreted for a political organization. The leaders are misdirecting the members, forcefully expecting money from them, but still the actions are not for the benefits of all involved. Another major ethical challenge is that the organization has lost focus of what is ethical and unethical. Instead of advocating for things that will benefit the children, avoid their discrimination, and ensure teachers are providing quality education; the union is focused on prohibiting anything that will not benefit teachers positively. As a matter of fact, they are against acts that are supposed to promote education for children and improve quality. Since the union is supposed to promote such acts, it is clear that they are being unethical in their actions.

Summary of Strategies Used by NEA to Maintain Responsible Conduct

This organization uses many strategies to maintain responsible conduct, despite the fact that it has many ethical and social justice issues. First, it has leaders to take control of the various activities involved within the organization. Without leaders, members of an organization would not be capable of staying together especially since they would be disagreeing, there would be no one to have the final say and so on (NEA, 2011). Thus, the organization has appointed different leaders for all sections to ensure that everything runs smoothly. These leaders are also supposed to lead others in the right way. Second, this organization has for long depended on research projects to support its advocacy. If it needs to oppose or support a certain act, it conducts research and uses the results as presentation to the government, showing why they should or should not implement the change given (NEA, 2011). This makes their argument to be stronger as it proves that they are using the right path by being ethical and thus doing the right thing for all involved.

Recommendations for Addressing the Issue

The National Education Association is opposing educational reform, a factor that is greatly affecting many children in many ways. First, exposure to high quality schools is being limited since their action is advocating for the continued mediocre schools. Therefore, children will never get the opportunity of enjoying high quality education in case their opposition succeeds. Their opposition also discourages more children to get enrolled in schools, therefore it also impacts the education of many more. The reason for this negative action by the NEA is that most of its members are unaware of what is going on and they also do not really know the truth behind the existence of this organization. Therefore, my first recommendation is that the Department of Education should make great effort in designing programs that will enlighten the members of the National Education Association (Wong, Wong & Ngo, 2012). This effort should be designed in a similar way to the No Child Left Behind, by applying the Theory of Action (Bland, 2014). This recommendation is very important as everything will change about the organization once the members have a clear idea of what they are supporting. Currently, only a few members know what the organization leaders have been trying to do. The second recommendation is that NEA should finally own up and start being transparent with its data. By hiding things from the people, the organization is not helping the trust situation that it has with the public. This will be a step towards curbing the claims that members are being misled. Transparency is the first step towards accepting mistakes and fixing the situation. This is because the organization’s leaders will not be tempted to act unethically as they will know that eventually they will have to answer for their mistakes.

Third, the NEA leaders should start being accountable for the organizations actions, and ensuring that teachers have a choice of whether they want to become members or not. By being accountable, leaders will know that any negative impressions given by the organization will be linked to them. Therefore, they will be more careful in preparing their activities, and will not only focus on selfish topics that are aimed towards benefiting them solely. Every individual has a freedom of choice, including teachers. Hence, it is immoral to force teachers to join the union just for the sake of getting finances from them. Fourth, school board members and parents should also get involved with the National Education Association. Without them, schools would be nowhere today, thus it shows they have power over the NEA. Teachers may always be tempted to favor their section only, which is why it is always important to have another group who will be representing the children.

If teachers had a clear view of the benefits they could receive as a result of merit pay, the importance of the data that encouraged the development of the NCLB, the many possibilities of charter schools, and also the reasons why NEA is opposing these changes, then the educational reform would start internally (Hoff, 2008). The recommendations above are all targeting the improvement of knowledge that many people have about the NEA. Therefore, once implemented, they are all expected to be effective in handling the ethical and social justice issues experienced by the National Education Association.

Factors Affecting the Implementation of the Recommendations mentioned

Just as with many business proposals, these recommendations will also require a lot of financing. This is why it may be difficult for the implementation of the first recommendation by the Department of Education. Currently, the organization is already supporting many people financially and politically, therefore it will be very complicated for it to still be able to find leaders who can develop a similar effort (NEA, 2011). As a result of a poor economy, the department may be forced to focus on issues that are more urgent and give this recommendation lesser priority. Another factor is how the NEA is already a powerhouse; hence, it means that the implementation of these recommendations may be hindered at various points, especially since they are supposed to create changes. Therefore, it will be very important for these reformers to be courageous; otherwise they will not make it. Parental attitudes may also threaten the implementation of the recommendation unless they are encouraged to meaningfully take part in the education of their children.

Outcomes

If these recommendations were implemented, the teachers will be given the power to make reformations on their own. As a result of this power, they will feel encouraged to be better professionals as they will hope for better payments and other benefits. This step, in turn, will also influence the quality of education offered in schools and students will feel more comfortable in the environment. Teachers will also gain relief after they understand that the NCLB is indeed a positive act, and it is not the government’s way of going against them as they had been initially made to believe. After their implementation, professional development will turn out to be a positive event and not how it previously was a negative event. Student learning will also be increased for the diverse students, as these implementations will encourage the development of many more charter schools.

NEA’s Opposition to Education Reform Threatens Equality, Liberty, and Justice

Justice is related to the actions of an individual as well as their moral implications. Hence, the decisive factor here is to even out the level of welfare to all individuals involved (Wong, Wong & Ngo, 2012). Distributive justice refers to how even the outcomes are while considering the organizational decisions and processes. Some individuals see that expectations and perceptions of fairness are parallel to the outcomes. This justice can be noted in the No Child Left Behind educational improvement act. It comes as a result of the actions of individual, that are designed to equalize the learning field and hence lead to the wellbeing of students. This action, however, is being threatened by the NEA.

Liberty is often considered to be a state of freedom, whereby one has the ability to act and think independently, as well as the capability of coming and leaving at one’s pleasure. It can also be considered as freedom to leave an unjust union, and be able to participate in more privileged activities without being intruded. The NEA is also opposing this by forcefully expecting teachers to become members of the organization.

Political liberalism is basically an idea that humans are indeed good and have the capability of governing themselves, however they still pick a government to lead them. This connection between liberty and political liberalism supports freedom of an individual, most specifically the individual liberty, human rights and many others. Political liberals are usually more focused on autonomy, equality, and neutrality. Therefore, all these should be used together to end up with an effective union.

Conclusion

The National Education Association has indeed deferred from its main purpose of existence. Its focus currently is very different from what it used to focus on many years ago. The people’s reaction to it previously and currently is also very different. Today, many people have lost hope in this organization as they now feel like it is a political organization and not the voluntary organization aimed towards fighting for the human rights of the members of the society. This organization has an opportunity of once again becoming what the people need. All it needs to do is to change its course, and finally focus on its purpose for existence. This should involve fighting for the rights of children to access education, fight for a high quality education system, and also to fight for the teachers so they can receive better salaries in future.

References

Antonucci, M. (2010). The long reach of teachers unions, using money to win friends influence policy. Education Next,10(4), Retrieved from http://educationnext.org/the- long-reach-of-teachers-unions/

Bland, A. (2014). No Child Left Behind: Why Race based Achievement Goals Violate The Equal Protection Clause. Berkeley La Raza Law Journal, 2459-80.

Hoff, D. J. (2008). Obama Slips Merit Pay Into Larger Plan on Schools. Education Week, 28(5), 23-25.

NEA, Initials. (2011). Our history. Retrieved from http://www.nea.org/

Prothero, A. (2014). In Calif. and Elsewhere, Unions Seek Inroads Into Charter Schools. Education Week, 34(3), 6.

Shober, A. F., Manna, P., & Witte, J. F. (2006). Flexibility Meets Accountability: State Charter School Laws and Their Influence on the Formation of Charter Schools in the United States. Policy Studies Journal, 34(4), 563-587. doi:10.1111/j.1541-0072.2006.00191.x

Smyth, T. (2008). Who Is No Child Left Behind Leaving Behind?. Clearing House, 81(3), 133-137.

Wong, Y., Wong, C., & Ngo, H. (2012). The effects of trust in organisation and perceived organisational support on organisational citizenship behaviour: a test of three competing models. International Journal Of Human Resource Management, 23(2), 278-293. doi:10.1080/09585192.2011.610966

Wright, R. E. (2003). Difficulties in Marketing the Concept of Merit Pay for Primary and Secondary Teachers. Research For Educational Reform, 8(3), 38-45.

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Ethical Dilemma and its Importance and Relevance

An Example of an Ethical Dilemma and its Importance and Relevance

Order Instructions:

For this final part of the project, imagine that the CEO has asked HR to review the company’s policies. You have been personally asked to identify an issue you feel needs addressing, to evaluate different parameters for ethically deciding on how to address the issue, and then to evaluate various polices in order to propose a policy that the company can implement to addresses the issue you have chosen.

In completing this assignment:
• Describe an ethical dilemma and its importance and relevance.
• Identify the various stakeholders and their positions.
• Evaluate an ethical decision-making model, apply it to the chosen issue, and analyze options for resolving this ethical dilemma.
• Recommend a corporate policy for resolving the issue and support the recommendation with well-reasoned analyses and specific examples, including the impact on the various stakeholders.
• Recommend a policy that resolves the ethical dilemma and support the recommendation with well-reasoned analyses and specific examples.
• Analyze and recommend a strategy for communicating the policy to the organization in a manner that meets the needs of the audience.
• Specify potential limitations of the policy and strategies for monitoring and compliance.

SAMPLE ANSWER

An Example of an Ethical Dilemma and its Importance and Relevance

Within the business or organizational context, ethics involves making decisions, which align with the sense of wrong and right alongside various policies. Effective handling of ethical dilemmas in organizations is significant in ensuring that businesses meet their objectives (Vieito, 2012). One of the ethical issues that should be addressed in the company is discrimination. Since the organization is dominated by male employees, female employees experience problems such as inappropriate remarks from their male colleagues. Addressing this aspect is significant in ensuring that the organization achieves a coherent task force, which is vital in driving the company towards its success.

Identification of Various Stakeholders and their Positions

Stakeholders who are linked to this ethical dilemma are management, directors, employees and HR. The management is in charge of ensuring that all employees work towards the realization of an environment, which is free from discrimination. This goal can be accomplished by appointing supervisors to monitor the behavior of workers in relation to the aspect of gender discrimination. Moreover, the management’s position in relation to this issue is to implement a policy, which is aimed at get rid of the issue of gender discrimination witnessed in the firm (Dalton et al, 2014). Employees’ position is to ensure that they act in line with the organization’s policy on gender discrimination. Director’s role will involve conducting reviews the policies such as the gender discrimination policy, which have been proposed by the management, and making necessary adjustments to such policies. The HR’s role will be to offer adequate training to employees in relation to the issue of gender discrimination in workplace and its negative effects.

An Ethical Decision-Making Model, its Application to Gender Discrimination and Options for Resolving this Dilemma

Ethical decision-making takes into consideration the making of choices based on what is appropriate/good for all individuals. One of the frameworks that can be employed in handling the gender discrimination problem in the firm is the golden rule. Golden rule is based on the precept that an individual should treat other people in relation to how he or she would want to be treated (Vieito, 2012). As such, the application of this approach in addressing the aspect of gender discrimination in the company will be successful as all employees, management and stakeholders will treat each other with equality regardless of their genders. Implementation of this model in decision making will involve the formulation of decisions that takes into consideration the interests of all genders in the company.

The aspect of gender discrimination can also be solved by placing members of different genders in separate departments or workstations. However, this approach is ineffective as it does not take into consideration the various skills that are possessed by workers. For instance two individuals of different genders may possess skills in handling a similar task. As such, separating them might result into an employee being assigned a duty in an area in which he or she is not skilled (Dalton, et al, 2014). Moreover, this approach can lead to the intensification of gender discrimination in the firm due to rivalry between genders.

A Corporate Policy for Resolving the Issue

One of the most appropriate corporate laws that can be employed in resolving discrimination in the company is the policy, which advocates for the treatment of all employees with equality regardless of the gender to which they belong (Dalton et al, 2014). Implementation of this policy in the firm will help in ensuring that employees do not engage in issues of gender discrimination due to the fear of legal consequences associated with such actions. As such, the company’s management will manage to get rid of this problem.

Policy that Resolves the Ethical Dilemma

As one of the ethical issues affecting the company’s progress, discrimination can be avoided by implementing a policy, which requires all employees to undergo a reward-based sensitivity training on ethical issues such as discrimination, and those employees who demonstrate a high sense of concern for gender equality to be rewarded (Vieito, 2012). This policy will ensure that employees are made aware of the negative effects of discrimination on employees and company’s productivity. Moreover, the incorporation of the aspect of reward in this policy will ensure that workers are motivated to fight gender discrimination in the organization.

Strategy for Communicating the Policy to the Organization

Communication of this policy will take into consideration all stakeholders and management. The first process of communicating the policy will involve a consultation with the company’s management for necessary adjustments. The policy will then be taken to the firm’s board of directors for review. The management will then inform employees about this policy and its significance to the organization and workers via a meeting and notices. The last process will involve the implementation of the policy. Prior to the implementation of this policy, the company’s management will have to seek the views of employees on this regulation with the aim of identifying areas that need adjustments (Vieito, 2012). In this manner, all stakeholders and employees will feel as part of the process of implementing the policy.

Specific Potential Limitations of the Policy and Strategy for Monitoring and Compliance

One of the limitations of this policy is that it does not take into consideration the aspect of punishment, which is significant in discouraging ill acts such as gender discrimination. As such, employees may be tempted to involve in such actions as there are no punishments associated with them. The effectiveness of this policy will be determined by conducting internal surveys on the firm’s employees. These surveys will be done after every three months, and they will focus on issues concerning gender discrimination in the work place (Vieito, 2012). In relation to this, the policy will be considered effective when cases of gender discrimination register a declining trend. On the other hand, when the organization seems to continue witnessing cases of gender discrimination, the policy will have to be reviewed.

References

Dalton et al. (2014). Antecedent and Consequences of Perceived Gender Discrimination in the Audit Profession. A Journal of Practice & Theory, 33(3), 1-32.

Vieito, T. (2012). Gender, Top Management Compensation Gap and Company Performance versus Behavioral Theory. An International Review, 20(1), 46-63.

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Business Ethical Issues Assignment Available

Business Ethical Issues

Business Ethical Issues Assignment

Order Instructions:

A person cannot evaluate policies within ethical standards until he or she identifies the issues that those policies are intended to address. In this assignment, you do just that.

Complete the following for identifying an ethical issue:
• Identify a potential ethical dilemma from a real company. The company could be a current company for which you work, a company in which you used to work, a friend’s company, or so on. The ethical issue or problem selected must affect the company, potentially affect the company, or involve the company.

• Explain the issues involved, including:
o Identify the stakeholders.
o Identify the concerns of the stakeholders.

For example, a company may chose to videotape the office and read employee e-mails. The conflict here may be that employees feel these practices are a violation of privacy and feel they have a right to a certain level of the privacy. However, stakeholders defend these practices because their concerns are whether the employees are getting their work done.
• Explain why you chose this particular issue and why the issue is important.
• Examine the current relevance of the issue. Is the issue currently in the media spotlight? Are there any recent incidents or reasons why this issue has come to the public’s attention.

SAMPLE ANSWER

Business Ethical Issues

Profit making is not bad for an organization since that is the main reason why they are in the world of business. However, it is the manner in which these businesses conduct themselves that brings questions of ethical behaviors. As noted by Duska (2014), the simple definition of business ethics is the ability to distinguish the bad from the good and considering the effects it has on the business environment and customers. Many companies, big or small have been involved in acts that either violate the customers’ interests or the interests of the employees. This paper presents the ethical issues and identification of the Whole Food Market Inc. and how the customers and stakeholders have reacted towards it.

The ethical issue in this case is how the company sold unlabeled genetically modified food in their supermarkets while their slogan reads “Nothing artificial, Ever”. The company has been in the market creating monopoly as one of the best whole food company whose trust lies with the customers. However, as I have been told by a friend who has worked in the company, and enough information from magazines, the company has been in the limelight of selling genetically modified food without labels. It is a false advertisement and a false view of the company who is believed to do right things.

The stakeholders that have been involved by this situation have never been happy about it. The stakeholders of this controversial issue are the employees and the management. The have condemned the act following the customers the company serves. For, example, whole food market serve big health care institutions whose directions are to get non-genetically modified foods for their patients. The concern of stakeholders is how the management has neglected its roles and subjects the society into unnecessary pains especially those who have been instructed not to consume the genetically modified foods due to health reasons (Johnston, 2014).

The malpractices and the greed of getting money without any good ethics of most organization is the reason why I chose this ethical issue. Most companies have left their obliged roles and are rushing towards making a lot of money without considering the effects such acts have on the customers and the society. For instance, the doctors instructs his or her patient not to consume genetically modified foods, one goes to the shelves find unlabeled genetically modified food and consume it increasing the chances infection he or she was preventing. This is an ethical act that should not be accepted by such companies.

Due to the increasing rates of cancer incidences, several studies have hypothesized that genetically modified foods have chemicals that initiate cancer infections. Confirmed or not confirmed, genetically modified foods have components that are dangerous for the normal growth of body cells. Due to the relationship of cancer and genetically modified foods, there have been a lot of concerns through television, radio station and social networks about the high rate of consumption of such food. There have been bills in some countries such U.S.A about the removal of genetically modified food from the country due to their health issues. However, the increasing global population has subjected people and organizations to manufacture the genetically modified food to curb the rate of hunger due to their fast maturation. Nonetheless, the bottom line is that they should be labeled to show customers that they are genetically modified or not.

References

Duska, R. F. (2014). Why Business Ethics Needs Rhetoric: An Aristotelian Perspective. Business Ethics Quarterly, 24(1), 119-134.

Johnston, J. (2014). Whole Foods Market. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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Applying Ethical Decision-Making Models to Guerrilla

Order Instructions:

As mentioned in previous weeks, Cooper’s ethical decision-making model and Waldo’s Map of Ethical Obligations assist responsible public administrators in assessing and addressing the ethical dilemmas that they will confront during their careers. Public administrators must consider all underlying factors of a dilemma and the potential solutions in order to ensure the most proper outcome. Sometimes the chosen outcome may involve actions that serve to work against the wishes of superiors in the organization.
For this Assignment, review the case study in the text, “Guerrilla Government in EPA’s Seattle Regional Office.” Identify an ethical issue within this case study. Consider the competing obligations and responsibilities that these individuals faced and how they determined whether their actions were right. Also, think about the impact of guerrilla government on the political appointees, organization, and public policy.
The Assignment (3–4 pages in APA format): Your paper should include the following:
A description of the ethical issue you identified in the “Guerrilla Government in EPA’s Seattle Regional Office” case study
A description of the issues the political appointees faced in this case and an explanation of federal ethics law violations
An explanation of why you think the career employees were motivated to use guerrilla tactics as a solution despite the risks to their careers (e.g., competing obligations) and whether their choice of guerrilla action was ethical
An explanation of how these actions affected the organization and public policy
A description of the actions leaders within the EPA might have taken to manage guerrilla government and an explanation of how those actions might have changed the outcome of the situation
An evaluation of the potential lessons for public administrators and the importance of these lessons
Note: If you are more familiar with life in a nation outside of the United States, explain the potential lessons for public administrators in that nation.
Support your Assignment with specific references to all resources used in its preparation. Provide a reference list with all resources included in the paper.
Your Assignment must demonstrate both breadth and depth of knowledge and critical thinking appropriate to graduate-level scholarship. It must follow APA Publication Manual guidelines and be free of typographical, spelling, and grammatical errors. The assignment should be 3–4 pages in length (double-spaced), not including the title page, abstract, and references.

SAMPLE ANSWER

Applying Ethical Decision-Making Models to Guerrilla

Abstract

Guerrilla governments refer to actions of public servants who operate against the wishes of their administrators. This paper explores the creation and development of guerilla governments and their impact on the organization and public policy with regard to the “Guerrilla Government in EPA’s Seattle Regional Office” case study. The paper further describes the actions that the administrators in the case study might have undertaken in order to manage the guerilla government and how these actions could have changed the situation. Lastly, the paper provides an evaluation of the potential lessons for public administrators and the importance of these lessons.

Applying Ethical Decision-Making Models to Guerrilla

A description of the ethical issue you identified in the “Guerrilla Government in EPA’s Seattle Regional Office” case study

When President Reagan came to power in 1980, he made drastic changes in the federal government. His purpose and mission was to reduce too much control by the government in the private enterprise (Lash, Gillman & Sheridan, 1984). He was of the view that the previous bureaucratic government had destroyed the American industry with too much regulation. After appointing Anne Gorsuch as the administrator of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, the two handpicked regional administrators for the EPA who had similar beliefs. John Spencer a good friend of Gorsuch, and Robie Russel were among the appointed regional administrators, and they perfectly illustrate the subtle and sophisticated authority of guerilla government and some conditions for the emergence of a guerilla government (O’Leary, 2014).

The guerilla government discouraged accountability and responsibility for actions done by some government employees such as Spencer. Spencer misused public funds and used his official position to further his own personal interests. Despite repeated warnings by career staff in his respective Management Division that his personal expenditures using taxpayer’s funds violated federal guidelines, Spencer continued to misuse the funds. In addition, Spencer violated environmental laws and disregarded complaints from environmentalists. Spencer also failed to enforce environmental laws as vigorously as possible despite EPA officials’ complaints that there were potential threats to the City of Kent’s water supply. Russel also embezzled public funds and violated environmental laws. He refused to accept the allegations lodged against him and maintained that he had brought badly needed change to the EPA (O’Leary, 2014).
A description of the issues the political appointees faced in this case and an explanation of federal ethics law violations

Political appointees had problems with controlling and monitoring the actions of the regional administrators due to the fact some of them feared acting on baseless grounds. For instance, when the director of the Management heard of a complaint about Spencer’s misconduct, he feared acting contrary to Spencer’s wishes due to the fact that he viewed Spencer’s misconduct as a privilege and a duty of government employees when they see wrongdoing to turn it in (O’Leary, 2014, p49). Another challenge that the employees faced was reassignment and demotion by the administrators. Spencer reassigned and demoted the director of the Management Division due to the fact that he repeatedly warned Spencer that he was violating procedures and misusing public funds.

EPA officials also faced strong influence from administrators who forced them to violate laws and ethical values. For instance, in the pulp mill case, Spencer forced the EPA staff to release confidential information provided by ITT-Rayonier to two of ITT-Rayonier’s competitors. Gorsuch misappropriated the EPA budget, demoralized the EPA staff and alienated Congress through her refusal to furnish the investigation committee with information in the agency’s Superfund program. Gorsuch also caused many appointees to be hired, fired, or promoted on grounds of their political positions (O’Leary, 2014, p53). Russel excluded his deputy administrator from meetings, which compelled the deputy to use guerilla tactics to raise his concerns.
An explanation of why the career employees were motivated to use guerrilla tactics as a solution despite the risks to their careers (e.g., competing obligations) and whether their choice of guerrilla action was ethical

Engaging in guerilla was not ethical due to the fact that it exacted personal costs to the self-esteem of the career staff. Though there are people who feel self-righteous to engage in guerilla, the fact that it compromises with loyalty and straightforwardness makes it unethical. Nevertheless, these career staff employees abandoned these ethical values due to the motivation that they were serving a greater good. Their acts were inspired by the urge to save human lives out of a love of humanity and they believed that there was no formal medium for them to express their concerns and solve the ethical and legal issues confronting them (O’Leary, 2014).
An explanation of how these actions affected the organization and public policy

Guerillas run the risk of being unregulated themselves. In some cases, guerillas fail to see the big picture and they promote policies which are incompatible with the system as a whole (Katz & Kahn, 1978). In other cases, guerillas making officers more consumed in fulfilling their own expensive and instrumental purposes instead of the purposes of the organization. Guerillas affect public policy due to the fact that they send different confusing messages to the public, thus creating a negative impression (O’Leary, 2014).
A description of the actions leaders within the EPA might have taken to manage guerrilla government and an explanation of how those actions might have changed the outcome of the situation

The leaders should have promoted an organizational culture that allows and encourages open dialogue and debate. Cultivation of a questioning attitude through encouragement of staff to challenge organizational assumptions fosters innovation and creativity. Leaders should also have learned to listen to the words and the language of dissent from the employees, and this could have helped in providing a platform for discussion and coming up with effective solutions. It is also important for leaders to understand the organization both formally and informally. This gives the leader an opportunity to embrace any proactive changes and to make objective, professional judgments when conflicts arise. Lastly, the administrators should have learnt to separate the people from the problem as this fosters objectivity in decision-making (Fisher, Ury & Patton, 2011).
An evaluation of the potential lessons for public administrators and the importance of these lessons

The case study shows that there are tendencies for decision makers and other stakeholders in an organization to become blinded by their own feelings and thoughts concerning dissent due to the fact that they majorly concentrate on their own careers, perspectives and programs as lone beings. Being too concerned with one’s own tasks and feelings makes one unable to see the other side of the dissent. Administrators should understand that guerillas will always exist and the earlier they learn to deal with them the better (Balfour, 2007).

References

Balfour, D. L. (2007). Book Review: Guerillas in Government? The Ethics of Dissent: Managing Guerilla Government. The American Review of Public Administration, 37(1), 114-116.

Fisher, R., Ury, W. L., & Patton, B. (2011). Getting to yes: Negotiating agreement without giving in. Penguin.

Katz, D., & Kahn, R. (1978). The social psychology of organizations. NY: Wiley. KatzThe Social Psychology of Organizations1978.

Lash, J., Gillman D., & Sheridan. D. (1984). A Season of Spoils: The Reagan Administration’s Attack on the Environment. New York: Pantheon.

O’Leary, R. (2014). The Ethics of dissent: Managing guerrilla government (2nd ed.). Chapter 3, Cq Press.

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Ethical Legal Dilemma Advanced Practice Nursing

Ethical Legal Dilemma Advanced Practice Nursing Case Study

Order Instructions:

As mentioned below , this is a continuation of 111490 SECTION B, basically in section B the writer wrote the introduction of the paper, and now the writer will have to write the entire paper. The paper will have 4 pages minimum excluding the introduction which is already written in 11490 SECTION B. follow the instructions below and also note that this is a fact-based assignment that will not include your opinion.
• This will require research and support for what is written.
• The assignment should be paraphrased without quotations from scholarly and fact-based publications.

Case Study Ethical Legal Dilemma Advanced Practice Nursing

Description.

This paper is a continuation of 111490 SECTION B, in that section, the introduction was written and for this paper the writer will take the introduction and continue by responding to the questions below base on the instructions giving hear below. Basically SECTION B of 111490 is the introduction of this paper, as you will realized if you read through it, so the writer will continue written the entire paper from where the introduction ended.

Also it is very important to note that this is a fact-based assignment that will not include your opinion.
• This will require research and support for what is written.
• The assignment should be paraphrased without quotations from scholarly and fact-based publications.

The paper should have a minimum of 7 citations and some of these should be case law or applicable statutes. The APA Manual and the textbook have instructions on legal formatting.

Directions:

1. Create an ethical legal decision-making dilemma involving an advanced practice nurse in the field of education, informatics, administration, or a nurse practitioner.

2. Include one ethical principle and one law that could be violated and whether the violation would constitute a civil or criminal act based on facts in the law.

3. Construct a decision that would prevent violation of the ethical principle and prevent the law from being violated.

4. Describe the legal principles and laws that apply to the ethical dilemma.

5. Support the legal issues with prior legal cases or state or federal statutes.

6. Analyze the differences between ethical and legal reasoning and apply an ethical-legal reasoning model in the case study to create a basis for a solution to the ethical-legal dilemma.

7. List three recommendations that will resolve advanced practice nurses moral distress in the dilemma you have presented.

8. Based on the issue you presented, the rules of law apply the laws to you case and come up with a conclusion.

Note:

• This is a fact-based assignment that will not include your opinion.
• This will require research and support for what is written.
• The assignment should be paraphrased without quotations from scholarly and fact-based publications.

SAMPLE ANSWER

Ethical Legal Dilemma Advanced Practice Nursing

In a case on the night of April 15, 1975, a patient by the name Quinlan ceased breathing for two intervals of 15 minutes. The parents decided to transport the patient to hospital where it was determined that her pupils were not moving and she failed to respond to deep pain (Karen Ann Quinlan Memorial Foundation, 2010). The patient was placed on a ventilator at the hospital and received a tracheotomy. The parents watched the condition of their daughter and observed that as days went by their daughters’ condition was deteriorating continuously. After much discussion and counseling, the family decided that it was at their best interest to remove the ventilator. The nurse attending the patient went to remove the ventilator but as she was about to start removing it the patient asked her to stop removing it. The nurse was in a dilemma not knowing what to do and who to listen to. This forced the hospital top disagree with the parents decision and later filed a case in court.

The principle of autonomy could be violated in this case if the nurse had done as by the parents’ wishes. Autonomy is essentially independence, the ability of an individual to choose his or her own actions (Fowler & American Nurses Association, 2008). According to this principle patients have a right both morally and legally to decide what type of treatment should be offered to them. The patient’s decision should be upheld and respected by all those involved in attending to the patient (Milton, 2003). Violating an ethical principle is a civil wrong.

The self-determination act could be violated if the nurse acted according to the demands of the family. The law provides that the parents are part of the patients family and that they have a right to call off the treatment or a do not resuscitate order for their patient (Bandman & Bandman, 2002). The 1990 act of self-determination provides that all the paternal relatives of the patient have a right to determine the treatment of their patient. The law further says that in case of life determination and maintenance the patient has a last decision on the same if at they can speak. Violation of this act is a criminal act punishable before a court of law.

When presented with the same case as above the nurse could choose to do what any reasonable and profession al person in the nursing field could do when faced with such a situation. The beneficence principle is based on the provision of bringing good to the patient (Purtilo, 2005). Every day of work is a day of nursing reflection; every day that a nurse is working is making decisions that are very crucial to the life of the patient (Furlong, 2007). In consideration to the beneficence principle, I could not remove the ventilator and instead ask the hospital administration to take the case to a court of law.

Another similar case to this was the case of Terri as described by Bratcher, Farrel, Stevens, & Wanderground (2007). The case was about the right to remove a feeding tube from the patient who had been using the tube for feeding for so long. Terri suffered a cardiac arrest in 1990. Her husband took her to hospital to seek for medical attention with the hope that Terri could recover. As time went by, the husband lost hope that the patient could not recover band therefore sought the ethical committee to take off the tubes. Terri’s parents refused that the tube should not be taken away from their only daughter. This brought a very serious battle between the two families. When they presented the case before a court of law, the court ruled in favor of Terri’s husband. However, the parents using their political power influence they did not heed to the court order and instead asked to pay the costs of the hospital as long as their daughter is arrive. First in this case, the court arrived at the decision after proving beyond reasonable doubt that the patient could not survive any longer on the tube after they were presented the facts about the situation of the patient by the nurse in charge of Terri.

Legal reasoning is the kind of thinking that comes from law, which consists mainly in legislation and the courts decisions (Rantmeester, 2013). The law is produced in relationships among the federal and state government and the governed. Law is very flexible and is subject to challenge depending on individual’s way of reasoning. Legal reasons suggest what is to be done from a legal point of view and suggest legal consequences for not doing what there are legal reasons to do (Lir & BJumtschkc, 2001). Ethical reasoning on the other hand emphasizes on the obligations, relationships, virtues, duties, responsibilities and personal character. Ethical reasoning focuses on practices of deliberation, argumentation and justification in which individuals try to make their moral lives in their line of professional communities. Ethical reasoning suggests what should be done and why it is right to do so. Whereas legal reasoning is a process of a legal expert giving advice to non experts, ethical reasoning is a process of reasoning among several different parties who are acting in the best interest of their loved one or patient, or who cares deeply about the rights of others (Rantmeester, 2013).

Savage & Milton (1989) came up with a decision making model for nurses. This framework is arranged into 9 steps that a nurse can follow in making a decision on the action to take when in a dilemma. The first steps require the nurse to use their professional and reflection practice in order to identify the health problem that the patient is suffering from. Once the health professional has discovered the health problem of the patient then they should identify the ethical problem or the ethical principle that is in the dilemma. Step there the practitioner should identify all the stakeholders who are involved in the decision. The fourth step the practitioner should identify their role as stated by the duties and responsibilities guidelines. The fifth step is to identify as many alternative solutions as they are available. These decisions should be based on reflective practice and application of past experience and also the use of evidence based practices (Sims, 1994). The sixth step is to consider the long-term and short-term consequences of each alternative solution that the practitioner has identified. The seventh step requires the practitioner to make a decision based on the best considered option. The eight steps is consideration on how the decision fits in with the general philosophy of practice care. The last step requires the practitioner follow the situation until they can see the actual results of the decision and use this information to help in making future decisions.

In the case presented in this paper, I could recommend the following when the advanced nursing practitioners are faced with a similar case. Never bring personal sympathy and feelings when dealing with such a case. When one brings their personal emotions and feelings in such a case, they may not act according to the will of the patients paternal relatives of family. This will b e very contrary to the patients will and families will. Secondly, the practitioner should listen to the two parties before they act, before removing any measures to resuscitate the patient’s life sustaining services first find out whether the patient is able to speak and think on their behalf. Thirdly, never act against the patients will. If at all the case is in such a way that the parents or relatives of the patient have refused the decision of the patient then take the matter to court for determination on the issue.

The ethical legal dilemma of the advanced nursing practice is basically solved through the application of the code of ethics principle and the law. Respect to the ethics of practice and the law will help one deal with the ethical legal dilemma effectively. Therefore, there is a dire need for masterly of the law in relation to nursing practice and the masterly and implementation of the code of ethics.

References

Bandman, E. & Bandman, B. (2002). Nursing Ethics Through the Life Span. (4^th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall

Bratcher, R., Farrel, J., Stevens, K., & Wanderground, K. (2007). Ethical and Legal issues. Jones &Barllet Learning, chapter 25; 387-400.

Fowler, M. D. M., & American Nurses Association. (2008). Guide to the code of ethics for nurses: Interpretation and application. Silver Spring, MD: American Nurses Association

Furlong, E. (2007). Right or wrong: legal and ethical issues and decision-making. Jones and Bartlett Publishers, chapter 3: 29-45

Karen Ann Quinlan Memorial Foundation, (2010). Karen Ann Quinlan: she changed the way people looked at life and death. Retrieved September, 27, 2014. From www.karenannquinlanhospice.org/history.htm

Lir&J. Jumtschkc,(2001). Ethical Dilemmas and the Nurse Practitioner in the NICU. Neonatal Network, 20 (1): 33-38

McLean, D. J., & Yoder, D. G. (2005). Issues in recreation and leisure: Ethical decision making. Champaign,Ill:HumanKinetics

Milton, C. (2003). The American Nurse Association Code of Ethics: a reflection on the Ethics of Respect and Human Dignity With Nurse as Expert. Nurse Science Quarterly, 16(4), 301-304

Purtilo, R.(2005). Ethical dimensions in the health professional (4^th ed.). Philadelphia: Elsevier Saunders.

Rantmeester, C. (2013 ). What’s legal? What’s moral? What’s the difference? A guide for teaching residents. American journal of bioethics, volume 6(4). Creighton University Medical Center.

Savage TA, and Milton CB. 1989. Ethical decision-making models for nurses. Chart 86(4): 2-5.

Sims, R. R. (1994). Ethics and organizational decision making: A call for renewal. Westport, Conn., u.a: Quorum Books.

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