Logic and Causal Models in Petrosinos Contribution
You’ll find the Petrosino’s Article
Petrosino’s article is intended to connect logic modeling to a broader multivariate statistical procedure called causal modeling. I want you to read the Petrosino article and respond to the following questions.
– What is Petrosino saying about constructing logic models as causal models?
– What is required to construct logic models as a causal models?
– What are the implications for program evaluations of testing logic models as causal models?
– How do the concepts in this reading change how you view your experience with logic models in the course?
write a short paragraph for each question.
Importance of Great Indigenous Australians People Order Instructions: Reading 4.3 The chapter on Indigenous Identity by Dudgeon, et.al. (2000) states:
Importance of Great Indigenous Australians People
a) “Issues of identity are of great importance to Indigenous people”.
b) “At some levels, there is much confusion about being Aboriginal”.
Working with Indigenous Australians: A Handbook for Psychologists (2000) p.43
Question:
1) Choose ONE of these questions and discuss and analyze.
Why do you think this is the case?
Answer in the context of the course materials presented and incorporate perspectives and issues that have been raised.
Importance of Great Indigenous Australians People Sample Answer
INDIGENOUS AUSTRALIANS
Name
Institution
“At some levels, there is much confusion about being Aboriginal (Dudgeon, et. al. 2000).
The identity of Aboriginal people is a charged subject in Australia. This is can be attributed to the colonial efforts that targeted erosion of Aboriginal cultural aspects during colonialism. The socio-cultural legacies of this history are experienced today. There lacks a standard to recognize aboriginality. Despite the Commonwealth definition of indigenous Australians, the matter of aboriginality is decided using superficial traits – that is body color, person’s face, and general appearance. Due to the increase in mixed marriages, such explanations are incorrect because the physical appearance of some indigenous people may indicate that they are non-indigenous aboriginals (Pickett, Dudgeon, & Garvey, 2000).
Identity is crucial because it is our link to our nation and also to the natural world. In my perspective, the identity confusion arises when westerners start pointing out what is defective about aboriginals, and what does not match their standards. Most of the indigenous Australian cultural practices were considered as absurd by the early European settlers. This prompted most indigenous people to ditch their culture in exchange for what was believed to be civilized and sophisticated. These internal conflicts led to the loss of cultural practices and this was largely due to the lack of connectedness. This is the source of confusion as most people lack knowledge of these cultural practices. Despite the various explanations on aboriginality identity, it is important to understand that the true nature or identity of aboriginal people is not by their color, but they are identified based on their history, culture, and spirituality (Pickett et al, 2000).
Importance of Great Indigenous Australians People References
Pickett, H. et al (2000). Working with indigenous Australians. Perth, W.A.: Gunada Press, Curtin Indigenous Research Centre, Curtin University of Technology.
For the critique find a recent (last 25 years) peer-reviewed scholarly journal article of 10–20 pages on an area of theology covered in this course. Such journals are The Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society, Bibliotheca Sacra, Grace Theological Journal, and the Westminster Theological Journal and are NOT magazines like Christianity Today, Visions, etc., The Online Student Library Services at www.liberty.edu/informationservices/ilrc/library/
**DO NOT USE ANY OUTSIDE SOURCES
I. Introduction as a brief summary of the content of the article (1–2 paragraph). Include:
A. The author’s purpose, goal, context, question, and/or issue; indicate to your reader what the broader topic of the article is.
B. Can you identify the author’s thesis? HINT: compare the opening paragraph with the conclusion to identify what was promised vs. what was claimed by the author. NOTE: do not confuse an author’s purpose with his/her thesis. The purpose may tell why the author is writing, or what the goal might be, but a thesis takes a position or stance to fulfills that purpose or goal. Suppose an article’s purpose is to describe pre-Fall Eden, or clarify a distinction between physical and spiritual death. The thesis would be the position that takes a stance to achieve that goal: “The death of leaves occurred during photosynthesis in Eden prior to Adam’s sin, which is a kind of ‘death’ within pre-Fall Eden.” Locate that “position” statement.
C. The brief overview need be only a few sentences so your reader knows the article’s overall argument. Do not fill the JAC with in-depth summary. Leave space for the next component, which is more important if you wish to get full points.
II. Critical Interaction (2–paragraph)
A. “Critical” here does not mean to criticize, to find something wrong, or to dislike something. Instead, in academic writing it is to compare/contrast scholarly positions. So, just show how the article’s author compares/contrasts to the way Erickson or an Elwell article discusses the same issue (you may use other scholarly works, the textbooks are just a recommended pair of sources, but you may use others, too).
B. What strengths can you affirm or weaknesses expose through this process? This is how you make your voice heard in the interaction between these scholars.
C. When you reference the critiqued article, the one on the cover page, you do not need to use footnotes, you can just cite page #s in parentheses (p. 123). Other citations must use footnotes in the “Notes & Bibliography” style (chs. 16-17) of Turabian.
III. Conclusion (1 paragraph)
A. Note omissions that seem glaring, but be cautious. No one can say everything in an article. An OT scholar may not refer to NT texts, so it may be unfair to point that out
B. Questions you can raise or applications you can make are good here (e.g., how will it be useful in your paper; how your own theological positions may have changed, etc.) Bibliography On a new page, under “Bibliography,” list the three or more works cited by you: the article itself plus the two or more outside sources. Alphabetize this list. Follow the “Notes & Bibliography” style for Bibliography entries (the “B” examples in chs. 16-17 of Turabian).
Format using Turabian’s “Notes & Bibliography” style1 (see chs. 16-17 in Turabian): • Use Turabian footnotes; not endnotes, parenthetical citations (chs. 18-19), MLA, or APA. • Use 12-pt Times New Roman font (you may format “Footnote Text” style for 11 or 10 point font if you wish). • Double-space body text. However, single-space footnotes, Bibliography entries, block quotes, and headings (these then need an extra blank line after for visual separation; if you right click in any text and choos “Paragraph…” you can set spacing “After”). • Keep headings simple: Introduction, Critical Interaction, Conclusion, Bibliography would be sufficient (cf. Tur. ed. 8, pp. 391-92, or the Seminary Writing Guide). • Use 1” margins all sides; use left justified paragraphs, leaving ragged right margins; use a 0.5 in. first line indentation for body text paragraphs. • Omit extra spacing between paragraphs (MS Word has a default 8 or 10 pt space after paragraphs that must be set to 0). Any style in MS Word documents can be modified in the “Format” menu: Format > Style… > highlight “Normal” in the list of styles > Modify > Format > Paragraphs… to set spaces “After” each paragraph to “0.” • NOTE: “local guidelines” for the Seminary’s Writing Guide supersede Turabian 17.2 (http://www.liberty.edu/seminary/index.cfm?PID=28160). Just omit the reference that commercial databases such as ProQuest, EBSCOhost, etc., attach to journal articles. Cite as print articles (any PDF actually is a scanned print page).
SAMPLE ANSWER
Introduction
Different opinions relating either in favor of the existence of God or in opposition has remained a controversial element for a considerable period. It is therefore essential to note that most of the affirmations that have existed in proving the presence of God are primarily based on the mysteries that are involved in nature and the origin of humanity and the universe. In as much as the existence of God remains an objective matter, Mander’s approach in proving his existence remains one of the efficient approaches geared towards removing the doubts that exist in the human mind. This paper therefore seeks to carry out a critique on the factors that prove God’s existence.
Thesis
The author’s thesis therefore provides the fact that God’s existence determines the reasons why the universe and its contents are present.
In his introduction Mander gives a depiction of his own existence and alleges that he is a thinking thing. Mander therefore takes the opportunity of eradicating the element of doubt on the perception that his sensory experiences may not exist outside him but do exist inside him[1]. In the conclusion of the author provides a substantial factor that human beings may not exist independently considering the fact that they have been created by an infinite being that is eternal, independent and hold a higher power and intelligence[2]. The author in his conclusion therefore alleges that this infinite being remains the rationale behind the existence of humanity and everything surrounding him, a factor that points out to the fact that the being is God.
The author’s purpose in this paper is therefore aimed at establishing the validity of God’s existence amidst the different merging schools of thought that oppose this fact[3]. This therefore determines the fact that the goal of the author is in developing a ground that ensures a belief in God’s existence, a factor that has been supported by several literatures. This paper therefore provides a hypothesis that seeks to address:
How we acquired the concept of God
Where scientific laws find inclination on God
Where the sense of right and wrong come from.
Zhang on the other hand believes that it is necessary to prove the existence of God which remains a crucial element in establishing the reasons why human beings and nature exist. According to this author, the desires of people has led them into a state of emptiness and lack, a factor that has seen humanity fail to notice the emptiness and lack, that would be filled by the presence of an ideal presence[4]. Zhang through this literature therefore seeks to provide proof on the existence of God.
Having assented to the fact that God exits, this author takes another view and determines to seek answers the question as to why human beings acquired the concept of God. In developing a response to this, Zhang also gives a description of three ideologies: adventitious, innate and factitious. The concept of adventitiousness is determined by the knowledge that human beings gain through the process of life. The factitious ideas on the other hand are determined to be the ideas that we gain from our creative imaginations and lastly ran innate idea is considered as an idea that comes from within us. According to this author, this definition gives a clear depiction of the fact that the acquisition on knowledge possessed by human beings on the existence of God is something that human beings are born with and which God placed in every individual[5].
Descartes’ clear perception is therefore guided by the fact that God exists and this is as a result of his perfection. In justifying this Descartes’ gives an elusive illustration and mentions that in order for an individual to be considered a betrayer[6], there must have been a detection of some faults. Considering the fact that God is perfect ad infinite the element of God being a deceiver betrayer is unjustified.
Critical Interaction
In the authors approach in proofing the existence of God, he takes a closer look at two things, the essence and his existence. Before having knowledge on something that exists one is always aware of the essence. This therefore means that in determining the essence of things it is required that a thorough understanding on the reasons why certain things exist and are not available is determined. This therefore gives a depiction of the manner in which human beings perceive things.
Mander’s views weighed upon the lenses of the arguments of Siniscalchi (2013) on the essence and existence of God tends to agree on some issues. Siniscalchi alleges that the existence of God is an element that may not be proved or disapproved. According to this author, the scriptures take stance in bridging this gap with the element of faith on the fact that God exists (pp.697). The author brings in context Hebrews 11:6 and states that scriptures confirm that anyone who comes closer to God needs to have some element of belief on the fact that God exists and rewards those who commit to seek Him. However, this scripture leaves a lot to be determined. In any case God exists as is claimed then chances are He would appear to prove his existence to the world which is sceptic about this factor[7]. However this would therefore means that if God revealed his existence to humanity, the element of faith would lose its true meaning.
Siniscalchi (2013), in his journal alleges that it is essential to denote that God is not a thing that anyone can be moderately interested in[8]. According to Siniscalchi, if God’s existence cannot be proved then there are no reasons why humanity is interested in proving his existence. This author therefore supports Mander’s views on the fact that human beings are empty and need a vacuum to fill the emptiness in their hearts. This emptiness can never be filled by any other thing but by God who created and authored our lives[9]. The knowledge on God’s existence may therefore be denied on intellectual grounds but the presence and existence of God in humanity and around human beings remains an obvious element. Considering the fact that different people through the face of history and in all civilizations and culture believe in this existence, there is a rationale behind it.
Siniscalchi therefore brings into light other logical arguments that support the existence of God. The author therefore argues that God is a being which cannot be conceived, a factor that depicts the fact that God’s existence if greater than his nonexistence[10]. This point therefore takes an ontological stand that explains the fact that if Go did not exist then there would have not been a greater being who would have been conceived, a factor that would contradict God’s definition. Mander’s views in line with this factor therefore tends to slightly vary considering the fact that this author believes that since the universe plays a significant role in life, then there is a initiator of the universe.
Desecrates gives an illustration by alleging that if the earth was situated closer to the sun, the world would have experienced numerous challenges considering the fact that the earth would not be a conducive place to live in since everything would die. This therefore provides a fact that there is a designer who figured out everything in the creation of the universe. According to Hunter (2015), God’s existence can be proved by the fact that everything and every effect in the face of the universe have causes. The universe and everything that exists in it according to Sousa are underpinned to have had a cause since they are effects[11]. This author therefore proves his point by supporting the idea of Siniscalchi in proving that there is a force behind the existence of everything and the cause is attributed to God.
Mander on the other hand takes a moralist argument in proving the existence of God by alleging that in every culture throughout the source of history, there is an element of law that determines the rights and wrong in the society. As a result of this, human beings are aware of the rights and wrongs, a factor that has seen individuals avoid murders, thefts, lies and immoral actions rejected universally. This sense of right and wrong according to this author therefore emanates from God.
Having determined this, I believe the views of the authors can be tested by scripture in determining the fact that God exists. It is essential to mention that the scripture mentions that people at some point will reject the word of God on the knowledge of God’s existence and choose to focus on lies, a factor that can be substantiated in this case[12]. As featured in Romans 1:25, Humanity will exchange the truth of God for lies and choose to worship created things rather than the true God who needs to be praised forever. It is therefore essential to note that people have no proper excuses on proving the existence of their creator considering the fact that God has invisible qualities. However, as scriptures determine in Romans 1:20, his eternal power and divine nature can be depicted and understood in order to make men find no excuse.
Conclusion
As determined in this study, different opinions relating either in favor of the existence of God or in opposition has remained a controversial element for a considerable period. This therefore provides the fact that most of the affirmations that have existed in proving the presence of God are primarily based on the mysteries that are involved in nature and the origin of humanity and the universe. It is therefore essential to mention that people tend to refute God’s existence as a result of the influences that have been wrought by science that seek to determine proofs on the existence of God. Humanity therefore forgets the fact that the creation of the universe and everything in it is a science that was authored by the same God. It is therefore essential to note that God remains the rationale behind the existence of humanity and everything surrounding him, a factor that points out to the fact that the being is God
This knowledge is therefore vital in the contemporary society since its shapes the community into realizing that humanity needs to be responsible for God and they need to live lives that reflect the true image of God. Considering the fact that God exists, we need to remain accountable to him with our lives and actions. If in any case we are influenced to believe that God does not exist, then we can do whatever pleases us without worrying about God’s judgment. It is therefore essential to note that even those who deny the existence of God still believe and have never found answers to the development of the universe.
Christians therefore need to consider that God’s existence can be felt in their everyday lives since God is spoken of every single moment. Even when his audible words may not be heard, but his presence can be felt and his leading as well. It is also essential for Christians to embrace the love of God and desire in his grace. This knowledge should therefore be shared with other Christians with the aim of strengthening their faith on God since several ideologies are emerging to challenge the existence of God.
References
Hunter, H 2015, ‘George Berkeley’s proof for the existence of God’, International Journal For Philosophy Of Religion, 78, 2, pp. 183-193, Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost, viewed 5 February 2016.
Mander, W 2013, ‘On arguing for the existence of god as a synthesis between realism and anti-realism’, International Journal For Philosophy Of Religion, 74, 1, pp. 99-115, Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost, viewed 5 February 2016.
Mizrahi, M 2012, ‘Jewish Survival, Divine Supervision, and the Existence of God’, Shofar: An Interdisciplinary Journal Of Jewish Studies, 30, 4, pp. 100-112, Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost, viewed 5 February 2016.
Siniscalchi, GB 2013, ‘New Proofs for the Existence of God: Contributions of Contemporary Physics and Philosophy’, Heythrop Journal, 54, 4, pp. 696-697, Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost, viewed 5 February 2016.
Sousa, D 2014, ‘Epistemic Probability and Existence of God: A Kierkegaardian Critique of Swinburne’s Apologetic’, Heythrop Journal, 55, 1, pp. 45-58, Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost, viewed 5 February 2016.
Wee, C 2012, ‘Descartes’s Ontological Proof of God’s Existence’, British Journal for the History of Philosophy, 20, 1, pp. 23-40, Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost, viewed 5 February 2016.
Watts, David. “New Proofs for the Existence of God: Contributions of Contemporary Physics and Philosophy.” Science & Christian Belief 24, no. 190-191. Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost (accessed February 13, 2016).
Zhang, L 2014, ‘A Logical Reflection on the Modal Argument for God’s Existence’, Philosophical Forum, 45, 3, pp. 273-284, Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost, viewed 5 February 2016
Introduction
It is essential to note that the scriptures were authored for everyone with the authors having a particular audience in mind. Fee and Stuart allege that the interpretation of the scriptures is required in determining its external relevancy and historical particularity. This therefore depicts the fact that the Bible is a divine revelation that needs to be humanly communicated. An individual therefore needs to understand the meaning and the intent of the original writer by conducting an exegesis and use sound hermeneutic to evaluate the scriptures contemporary significance and apply that in life.
According to Fee and Stuart the best approach in the interpretation of the Bible would be the consideration of the textual and linguistic approach. They explain that the textual issues are primarily focused on determining the original text and its linguistic focus on an individual’s translation. Theories of translation on the other hand vary from scripture to scripture, a factor that requires the readers to think contextually. This paper therefore seeks to determine the manner in which scriptures can be read for all its worth.
Critical Analysis
In interpreting the epistles, it is essential to consider the element of cultural relativity that primarily focuses on determining what needs to be transferred to the first century from the transcendent truth. It is essential to note that a text may not mean what it wouldn’t have meant to its author or to the readers[13]. Additionally, when sharing the same situation with the original audience, it is essential to note that the message for us still remains the same. Through a careful exegesis, a reader can reveal the principles that may extend to the contemporary application of the scriptures. This therefore means that a reader needs to resist extrapolating too far from the intent of the writer.
In the fifth chapter of Stuart and Fee’s book the author takes a look at the narratives that gives a depiction of Gods story that is based on the historical events. The Biblical narratives give stories that have a timeless significance to the readers. Fee and Stuart therefore give the three levels of narratives in which they mention the top level that is considered as the metanarrative that comprises of the big picture of the redemptive history that begun from creation to the eschaton[14]. The second level is comprised of Gods approach in redeeming humanity through the major covenants. It is therefore essential to consider the fact that the first level comprises of the stories that consist of the characters, plot, and plot resolution that gives a depiction of the three caveats that are expressed through allegories that are full of hidden meaning that is intended to teach moral lessons to the readers.
The sixth chapter provides a hermeneutical suggestion on the elements of biblical precedence. The author depicts that the book of Acts is divided into six panels that are delineated by short summaries and statements. Each panel therefore briefly builds upon another by giving an overall thrust of the expansion of the Church into the Gentile community through the power of the Holy Ghost[15]. The theme of the books therefore remains in setting a path for the expansion of the church outside Jerusalem. The authors therefore allege that in interpreting this narrative, it is essential not to use an analogy that is based on the biblical precedents as the authority for contemporary practice. Additionally, Fee and Stuart also allege that biblical narratives always have illustrative patterns that can be seen as repeatable even when they are not normative.
On the Gospels, Fee and Stuart alleges that these are unique genres that are characterized by layers of context. Considering the fact that they were written decades after the main events recorded, the readers need to consider the historical context of the authors[16]. The context of Jesus can therefore be assimilated by taking a deep look at the first century of Judaism in Israel. The reader therefore needs to think horizontally by reading each periscope with the awareness of the parallels that are involved. On the other hand, the readers also need to think vertically by recognizing the historical context of the authors and Christ. The eighth chapter of the book gives an interpretation of the parables as they were used by Jesus. Fee and Stuart therefore alleges that the main idea in the parables is that they were designed to proclaim the kingdom by calling forth a response.
In the ninth and tenth chapter of the book, Fee and Stuart depict how to deal with the laws and prophets. In this, it is essential to consider the fact that the readers need to understand the nature and the role of the law in Israel in order to ask the relevant questions on how this can be applied under the dispensation of the new covenant. God’s law for Israel was therefore the approach used in binding the readers through a vassal relationship[17]. In this case, the Old Testament is comprised of civil and ritual laws that enforce the conduct of the public on religious practices that have to be renewed.
In as much as Christ renewed the potions of these ethical codes, it is essential for the readers to understand that these can be explicitly renewed and applied today. It is therefore essential to understand that the laws are covenant stipulations in which the roles of the prophets need to be focused on first[18]. The prophets served primarily as Gods spokesmen and the enforcers of the covenant. These books are therefore a collection of the spoken oracles that are presented in their unique chronological sequence. It is therefore recommended that in interpreting these books, there is a need to read the Biblical dictionary before understanding the prophetic books.
According to Fee and Stuart, the Psalms remain complicated in interpreting and understanding since they are considered as prayers to God within the ancient context. The element of Hebraic poetry is therefore drenched in the Psalms through an emotional language that is spoken from the heart. The authors of the Psalms therefore use the element of synonymous parallelism as a device that elaborates the ideas within the repeated textual unit[19]s. It is therefore essential to consider the fact that there are seven categories of the psalms that include: hymns of praise, laments, thanksgiving, salvation histories, creation and affirmation, the wisdoms and the songs of trust. This therefore gives the impression that each of these categories has a formal structure and serves a particular function within the culture of the Israelites.
The books of Provers, Ecclesiastes, and the Song of Songs are categorized as wisdom literatures that depict the right position with God as compared to intelligence. The book of Job therefore bases its theme on the element of the happenings of life[20]. On the other hand, the book of Ecclesiastes gives a similar idea that remains challenging to discern. Song of Songs is considered as a love literature that can be understood through allegories. In interpreting these books, it is essential to avoid taking verses out of their context and giving them meaning that was not intended by the authors.
Fee and Stuart also take a look of the book of Revelation that they consider complex considering the fact that its genre is multifaceted with a combination of prophecies, apocalypse and letters. The authors therefore give the characteristics of the apocalypse that include their dependency on the Old Testament prophetic literatures, there approaches of including visionary literatures, the use of imagery in the books and the use of stylized literary genre[21]. The book of revelation therefore involves prophecies that are written by John on behalf of God. The book therefore entails seven letters that are addressed to seven churches with the central theme that aimed to show the manner in which the church and the state are in a collision and victory tends to belong to the state.
Conclusion
Fee and Stuart allege that the interpretation of the scriptures is required in determining its external relevancy and historical particularity. This therefore depicts the fact that the Bible is a divine revelation that needs to be humanly communicated. The central element to consider when interpreting the scriptures is that the readers need to think in paragraphs as opposed to holding thoughts in verse in ascertaining the larger context. It is additionally essential to consider the fact that scriptures may not mean what the author never intended for the readers.
References
Bergant, Dianne. 2015. “How to Read the Bible For All Its Worth.” Bible Today 53, no. 4: 256-257. Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost (accessed February 21, 2016).
Briggs, Richard S. 2015. “Biblical Hermeneutics and Practical Theology: Method and Truth in Context.” Anglican Theological Review 97, no. 2: 201-217. Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost (accessed February 21, 2016).
Galli, Mark. 2015. “The New Battle for the Bible.” Christianity Today 59, no. 8: 31-33. Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost (accessed February 21, 2016).
Gordon D. Fee and Douglas K. Stuart, How to Read the Bible for All Its Worth, 3rd ed. (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1993), 21.
Samuel, Leonora. 2005. “Accentuation: A Tool For Interpreting The Text Of The Hebrew Bible.” Jewish Bible Quarterly 33, no. 3: 174-183. Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost (accessed February 21, 2016).
[1] . Mander, W 2013, ‘On arguing for the existence of god as a synthesis between realism and anti-realism’, International Journal For Philosophy Of Religion, 96
[3] . Mizrahi, M 2012, ‘Jewish Survival, Divine Supervision, and the Existence of God’, Shofar: An Interdisciplinary Journal Of Jewish Studies, 30, 4, pp. 110
[4] . Zhang, L 2014, ‘A Logical Reflection on the Modal Argument for God’s Existence’, Philosophical Forum, 45, 3, pp. 275
[6] . Wee, C 2012, ‘Descartes’s Ontological Proof of God’s Existence’, British Journal for the History of Philosophy, 20, 1, pp. 25
[7] . Hunter, H 2015, ‘George Berkeley’s proof for the existence of God’, International Journal For Philosophy Of Religion, 78, 2, pp 185
[8] . Siniscalchi, GB 2013, ‘New Proofs for the Existence of God: Contributions of Contemporary Physics and Philosophy’, Heythrop Journal, 54, 4, pp. 696
[11] . Sousa, D 2014, ‘Epistemic Probability and Existence of God: A Kierkegaardian Critique of Swinburne’s Apologetic’, Heythrop Journal, 55, 1, pp. 45
[12] . Watts, David. “New Proofs for the Existence of God: Contributions of Contemporary Physics and Philosophy.” Science & Christian Belief 24, no. 190-191
[13] . Gordon D. Fee and Douglas K. Stuart, How to Read the Bible for All Its Worth, 3rd ed. (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House
Please use the *Topic title above and search your records because you have this paper description on your webpage already so you have wrote on the same topic before.
SAMPLE ANSWER
Concept Synthesis: Personal Nursing Philosophy
The necessity of philosophy in nursing is to facilitate practice by enhancing the understanding of nurses about the concepts they encounter when executing their roles. Nursing is an old profession and theoretical models help pass the knowledge and experience of predecessors to the current generation of practitioners. This ensures that nurses can solve issues more efficiently when using models than they would do in the absence of the philosophies. It is therefore imperative that the current nursing is better than that of the older days, and theoretical models are vehicles of practice advancement. In this paper, I reflect on the application of the four metaparadigms of nursing as they are outlined in nursing models and as they apply to practice. I will discuss the nursing, patient, health, and environment aspects comprehensively and conclude by outlining several propositions that connect the discussed metaparadigms.
The Four Nursing Metaparadigms
Metaparadigms are ideas that describe the holistic functioning of a particular system. In nursing practice, such metaparadigms are rigid in that they would not change with the emergence of new theories, and instead, developed models fall within the metaparadigms. Basically, nursing practice falls within the four established concepts, and practitioners rely on their understanding to deliver care that is satisfactory to their clients. The metaparadigms interconnect in a way that they form the scope of practice and offer references for nurses when making of clinical decisions.
Health
I understand health to be the outcome or the objective of the entire process of nursing. The purpose of nursing is to restore health or well-being in patients regardless of the methodologies that they apply. The responsibility of nurses is to know what factors hurt health and how people could remain healthy through approaches such as preventing disease and treating them. I also consider health to be a form of satisfaction. People are unhealthy if they have bothers regardless of the nature of such bothers. Usually, alleviation of health could be physical, psychological, or spiritual. Lack of satisfaction from any of the three approaches translates to dissatisfaction which is the disease status. Since health entails the maintenance of processes to a certain regular state, it is possible for people to lose it through distractions that would interfere with physical, psychological, or spiritual normalcy. Disease is the problem that motivates nursing practice and the interaction between patients and nurses, and health is the expected outcome of the holistic process. Failure to achieve the state of wellbeing is therefore a frustration to nursing practice. It is also important to note that health cannot be described as a discrete status, but it is rather a relative condition. For instance, what could be health at a certain age could be unhealthy at a different age. Other factors that could influence the perception of health include gender, environment, and one’s physiological condition. Again, it is worth noting that while various factors could influence the perception of health without necessarily causing disease, others would predispose people to abnormalities.
Environment
Far than it may seem, the environment is essentially important to nursing practice. Usually, it is the vehicle that nurses propel to generate health. Nightingale suggested that the curing or treatment process only entail the provision of a combination of environmental situations that would favor the restoration of normalcy in the human body (Jones, 2010, Pg. 190). The philosopher argued that healing itself is a natural occurrence and nursing, just like any other area, has minimal contribution to bringing health into persons. Instead, the practice facilitates the occurrence of desirable natural outcomes by manipulating the environment so that it increases chances of happenings being desirable. The scope of the environment is broad and it could be interpreted to incorporate the nature and all other conditions that influence the wellness condition of patients. As such, the environment could be so broad so as to entail factors such as the behavioral practices that nurses perform. Generally, anything whose presence influences the outcomes of the wellness status in people would constitute the environment. It is essential to know that the concept of environment in nursing entails both external and internal determinants. The external factors range from the geography of the setting of patient care and social factors such as culture and interactions. On the other hand, internal factors include the prevailing health outcome determinants such one’s mental health. Nurses are obliged to understand the environment of their patients for them to offer effective and satisfactory care. For instance, they would require the knowledge of the environment when determining the level of patients’ predisposition to diseases.
Person
The person as explained in the metaparadigms of nursing refers to the subject of care. The concept would refer to the patient at a glance, but upon a more comprehensive analysis, it would also entail other interested persons such as patient’s families. In other words, the person is any party that would directly enjoy the outcomes of the nursing process. The nursing process directs its services to the person and seeks to achieve satisfaction. The person is important in the nursing process as factors that such as the culture and beliefs of the recipient of care would shape the structure of nursing. Parties such as Patients’ families are also critical in nursing as they are involved actively in making clinical decision together with patients and nursing. Rodger’s theory explains the concept of person in nursing practice as a unitary being that develops after the interaction of physical, social, and other environmental determinants of health. Other philosophers who gave a comprehensive understanding of the person in nursing include Henderson and Watson. In his philosophy, Henderson explained that the biological, psychological, and spiritual determinants of the recipient of care are essential when considering the nursing process (Jarrin, 2012, Pg. 17). On his side, Watson explained the necessity of the unity of the nature, mind, and body in driving nursing practice (Bell, Campbell, & Goldberg, 2015). When caring for patients, nurses pay attention to the person by promoting the mental and physical health of their clients prior to initiating treatment. They also pay attention to the person by promoting cultural-sensitive care as different patients would present with specific cultural and belief needs. When nurses focus on the needs of the patient, they comply with the models of nursing that require care to be directed to the person concept.
Nursing
Nursing as defined in philosophical models is the professional practice whose competence one acquire through training, knowledge search, and experience. Qualified professionals conduct themselves in a particular way that allows them to establish healthy interactions with their patients. For effective nursing, there are virtues that professionals must express toward their patients. For instance, the virtue of compassion would apply on everyday nursing practice as the professionals would always deal with suffering clients whose wellness would require emotional support. The nursing component also involves activities such as promoting and preserving the dignity of patients. Peplau described nursing practice as a therapeutic process that involves interpersonal relationships between parties for the best outcomes (Deane & Fain, 2015). Important activities that happen within the concept of nursing as models indicate include critical decision-making. In most cases, clinical decisions would not be straight-forward, and it would be necessary for nursing practitioners to determine the appropriate approaches through critical thinking. Commitment and dedication to service are also virtues that would facilitate nursing practice. Nursing involves caring for others, and therefore, commitment and dedication are inseparable from practice for it to be efficient. Also, it is worth noting that nursing upholds human values and its purpose is to protect such values by addressing the health needs of people.
Concepts Specific to Practice
Evidence-Guided Nursing
Nursing is a science, and therefore, it is informed by scientific evidence. Evidence-guided practice is associated with the application of the best available strategies of care. Nursing adopts the evidence-based nature so as to promote patient outcomes. Scientific evidence mainly applies to practice by facilitating decision-making and describing the safety of choices made. The approach enable nurses to link practice to research so that information is appraised through research prior to its application to patient care. It also enhances the competence of nurses by ensuring that they stay informed and updated about the available practice approaches. In addition, evidence-based practice enables practitioners to address the preferences of their clients effectively. The current nursing has more than forty-seven models that offer guidelines concerning the application of evidence-based practice at its disposal (Stevens, 2013).
Patient Education
The scope of nursing entails roles such as mentorship, guidance, and teaching of patients. Nurses promote patients’ well-being by ensuring that they are informed ion various matters of health. Information enables patients to participate actively in the health care provision by facilitating practices such as decision-making and administration of self-care. Other advantages of patient education to nursing include promotion of patient compliance as people can understand the necessity of specific treatment procedures. However, due to other patient factors such as illiteracy, nursing may find it frustrating to educate patients. So as to overcome such limitations, practitioners explore theoretically advocated approaches to patient care. Activities involved in such practices include the assessment of individualized teaching, maintenance of favorable learning environment, application of effective strategies, and evaluation of the effectiveness of teaching (Smith & Zsohar, 2013).
Propositions
Proposition dictate the assumptions that theories incorporate in their structure for their suggestions to be applicable. The following are the propositions I deduced from the discussion of various metaparadigms of nursing:
Nursing is a holistic practice that addresses both clinical and non-clinical factors that influence the health of patients.
Nursing entails the manipulation of environmental factors so that they favor the natural occurrence of the desired outcomes.
Social and cultural factors of patients such as interactions in the community and beliefs are important determinants of health approaches that nurses should consider during their practice.
Poor mental health is a set back to the provision of quality health care services to patients.
Patients would be able to manage their health if they are informed accordingly by nursing professionals.
References
Bell, E., Campbell, S., & Goldberg, L. R. (2015). Nursing identity and patient-centredness in scholarly health services research: a computational text analysis of PubMed abstracts 1986–2013. BMC Health Services Research, 15, 3. http://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-014-0660-8
Deane, W. H. & Fain, J. A. (2015). Incorporating Peplau’s Theory of Interpersonal Relations to Promote Holistic Communication Between Older Adults and Nursing Students. Journal of Holistic Nursing. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25854267
Jarrin, O. F. (2012). The Integrality of Situated Caring in Nursing and the Environment. Ans. Advances in Nursing Science, 35(1), 14–24. http://doi.org/10.1097/ANS.0b013e3182433b89
Smith, J. A. & Zsohar, H. (2013). Patient education tips for new nurses. American Journal of Nursing, 43(10). doi: 10.1097/01.NURSE.0000434224.51627.8a
Stevens, K., (2013). The Impact of Evidence-Based Practice in Nursing and the Next Big Ideas. OJIN: The Online Journal of Issues in Nursing, 18(2). DOI: 10.3912/OJIN.Vol18No02Man04
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In Module/Week 5’s Reading & Study folder, there are 3 short readings. Your assignment is to read them and then write an essay of at least 600 words in current APA format addressing the questions listed below.
While you are free to quote from sources, quotations will not count towards the minimum word count.
A note about the readings: The first reading is a synopsis of The Matrix. If you have seen the movie, this will function as a review for you.
The second reading comes from Plato’s classic work, The Republic. It is in the form of a dialogue between Socrates and Glaucon, a brother of Plato, and contains the famous cave allegory.
The third and final reading is a section from Meditation I, from Meditations on First Philosophy by Rene Descartes, who offers some reasons to doubt his senses.
Questions to Consider
1. Compare and contrast The Matrix with the readings from Plato and Descartes. What are some similarities and differences?
2. Can we prove that the world we are experiencing is real? How do we know we are not dreaming, living in a Platonic cave, or trapped in some sort of matrix?
SAMPLE ANSWER
Plato, Descartes, and the Matrix
Question 1
Basically, the three readings, Descartes’ musings, Plato’s cave analogy, and The Matrix are similar in that they all focus on the reality that our senses experience. There is a concern regarding if this reality is objective and tangible or an illusion. The Matrix is all about the reality that the computer generates and at one point, Cypher thought that knowing the truth would result to an easier life, but later, there is the discovery that knowledge is really a weight burden. Therefore, he wants to erase memories so that he can attain the former state. Descartes’ reasoning is that at one point, people discover that the false opinions that were taken to be true are actually vague since everything based on the fails. Therefore, it becomes necessary to do away with them and adopt a new framework for a firm foundation. In cave analogy, there is an enquiry regarding if what people perceive as the reality really holds. Following this reasoning, Descartes continued speculating what higher power it was that had subjected people to such deception (Descartes, 1641). Although these three sources differ in some other concepts, they all speculate on if not or if our perceptions or senses can be trusted.
Second, there is an exploration of how real reality is in the three sources. However, there is an agreement that the reality that people presently perceive through their senses can only be replaced by alternatives that also perceived through the same senses. In The Matrix, the reality that is within people has been presented in the form of a computer that holds their minds captive and gives them many illusions. To Plato, the reality is just like the shadows (Plato, n.d.). However, the usual items to illustrate reality (stone statues, fire, stone wall, humans, and sunshine). Similarly, Descartes knew that for him to reach the higher enlightenment, it was necessary to use the power of the present reality including his brains and thinking abilities (Hasker, 1935). The sensory experience that relates to reality is so much into humanity such that they cannot think of reality that differs from it.
Question 2
For people to prove different things, the premises underlying these proofs would first need to be established. Many times, human beings are never content with the basic reality and, therefore, they have a tendency of seeking the explanations for this reality. However, there are no alternatives to the reality. And if those refuting this reality can offer at least an example of a person who escaped this reality and was enlightened in another reality, then their arguments would have weight. Nonetheless, trusting that evidence would be hard since it would not be sure it the enlightenment experience of that person was simply another delusion based on the sadistic computer mastermind. The only necessity is an external source originating from an entity which is not restricted to human dimensions. This entity should be divine as no human would manage escaping this reality to confirm its reality.
There are different sources that advocate for true divine origins, including the Bible and Quran. However, presently, there are different movies which create awareness about divinity. One of these is ‘Heaven is Real’, and anyone who has ever watched it can agree that divinity is real. The young boy in the movie is able to perceive things that the parents had never told him about, and he says that Jesus informed them those things. This makes the dad very angry and confused. The boy was able to enter the realms and dimensions that are only accessible to the angles and Jesus Christ, and get answers on different things, and even meet his sister who had passed away on birth. The dad was in denial of what the son was experiencing since he declined using his senses to perceive the works of God in his son’s life (Dew & Foreman, 2014). However, with time, he realized how special his son was and his faith in God increased. Other people were also influenced immensely by this occurrence.
References
Descartes, R. (1641). Meditation I of the things of which we may doubt. In Descartes, R., Meditations on First Philosophy. Retrieved from Blackboard: http://www.learn.liberty.edu
Dew, J. K. & Foreman, M. W. (2014). How do we know: An introduction to epistemology. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press.
Hasker, W. (1935). Metaphysics: Constructing a world view. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press.
Plato. (n.d.). The allegory of the cave. In Plato, The Republic, Book VII (pp. 514A1-518D8). Retrieved from Blackboard: http://www.learn.liberty.edu
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This paper is to be critically reflective, yet scholarly in nature and exhibit and high level of competence and understanding of leadership style, approach, method, and overall theory. Because this paper is based on your own philosophy of leadership, there is considerable leeway for your discussion. However, your discussion should stay within the constraints of the overall concepts, ideas, and topics covered throughout the duration of the course.
Only use scholarly sources most preferably peer-reviewed literature.
Key Terms are
Conflict Functional conflict Negotiation
Dysfunctional conflict
Organization Structure
Organizational Change
Organization System
Organizational Culture
Bargaining strategies
Conflict and negotiation
Conflict management
The conflict process
The negotiation process
SAMPLE ANSWER
My Philosophy of Leadership
The following exercise details the key values and principles I hold dearly when it comes to the subject or rather process of leadership. It details the generic leadership model that I use relative to the different situations I find myself leading in whether in an academic scenario, personal relations or in a workplace environment. My behavior as a leader and to a large extent as a private individual is closely aligned to this leadership philosophy. To me a leadership philosophy is something that should work in the same way a mathematical formula works. The manner it operates remains the same regardless of the numbers in question.
I consider myself to be an observant person and in the course of this I couldn’t help but notice the debilitating impact that conflicts between people has on productiveness and development. A lot of opportunities tend to go down the drain as a result of conflicts that arise between individuals. The main problem is not actually the conflicts but the ineffective strategies that these individuals tend to employ in a bid to resolve the conflicts. Many a time this only makes the situation worse and the minor conflict exemplifies the “anthill into a mountain” transformation. These conflicts usually degenerate from something functional such as a formal academic goal or work objective into personal issues and this severely complicates the process of conflict resolution with time and other resources being wasted.
While the term conflict tends to bring about a whole set of negative connotations, it is worth noting that the manifestation of conflicts is different in the organizational context as its manifestation in everyday language usage. Conflicts mean disagreement of opinion and this can at times be a bad thing and in other times a good thing. I must admit that on a personal level, the term conflict usually brings about thoughts of wrongness and rightness with the conflicting sides taking the respective positions. I have also however come to learn that a difference in opinion does not necessarily mean that one person is wrong and the other right. At times it is a case of two good ideas colliding in a scenario where there is only room for one of them to be fully implemented. This is termed as a functional conflict since the people or groups on opposing sides of the conflict that has ensued are keen on the achievement of a common goal, only that they want to do it using different paths. With functional conflicts, the common resolution strategy in my view is compromise. At times it may mean the compromise of letting one idea prevail over the other or in other instances this may mean that both parties yield from their positions moderately for the common good (Arai, 2014).
While conflict avoidance is a good thing in most instances, I personally believe that functional conflicts need to be encouraged. While the complete avoidance of conflicts in the place of work may seem like a good thing, it is actually retrogressive for an organization as it denies the rest of the group the best possible ideas. The mettle of ideas being proposed needs to be tested and compared to other ideas aligned towards the objective of the organization. If I happen to be in a position of formal leadership it will be my goal to ensure my subordinates and those at my level become and remain confident about expressing the ideas they have even if they contradict those that have already been put forward. The fear for conflicts should not in my opinion be a reason for retrogressive ideas and redundancy. I want people to see the importance of functional conflicts since these tend to be healthy discussions if steered and moderated in the right direction. The steering and moderating of such discussions can be done by an effective leader who will ensure that this does not degenerate to an interpersonal conflict (Hartnell et al, 2011).
When interpersonal conflicts arise, the status of the conflict can be termed as dysfunctional. Dysfunctional conflicts are those that only have negative consequences for the organization, group or individuals involved. Unlike functional conflicts which arise as people are working towards a common goal, dysfunctional conflicts lead people to having different goals and the main aim becomes to achieve some form of victory over the other person. When this happens the organizations suffers a slow down as well as wastage of organizational resources. The individuals or groups conflicting lose or let go of their willingness to work alongside each other. This can be worsened if they apply their conflict to the work they are doing as it may lead to sabotage, further complicating the problems the firm has. Leaders need to be careful to ensure that such conflicts are not manifested in the place of work. As a leader I will be careful about the policies I put in place and advocate for. The manner in which I relate with the subordinates will also have an impact on the environment being created. If I show some form of favourism or victimization towards workers based on their comparative performance, it may lead them to compete for positive favor. If the workers are pitted against t each other through things like sales targets or otherwise with threats being issued against those who perform dismally, I am likely to breed an environment for dysfunctional conflicts. This is because the employees will be on ‘survival mode’ and this makes people insensitive and self-centered. While such rigid measures may help in the short-run, they have a likely impact of breaking down bonds between workers as activity narrows down to individual performance (Chatman et al, 2014).
It is very important for workers to be aware that they are working as a team. From my personal experience, the singling out of individual performance and giving one person credit for a collaborative achievement tends to be counter-productive. As a leader I may feel like I am motivating the person because I saw them give their best, but from the level of the other members they will feel that their contribution was not significant. This is worsened if the individual receiving undue credit takes it with a stride. A likely situation is an improvement in the output of the individual while the other members of the group take a back-seat. Leaders need to be on the lookout for such symptoms and strive to eliminate such situations. As a leader the first thing that I will do is to make sure the members of this group see themselves as a team and not as individuals (DeWit et al, 2012). This however starts at the simplest level of the team which is the person. Each person needs to believe that their contribution is important and contributes towards the end result. If a disappointment has been registered I believe that the entire team needs to be addressed as the failure is a communal thing. If there is success on the other hand, the entire group needs to be praised for the job well done. Such a team is only possible if the type of conflict taking place is functional. Functional conflicts are cohesive since each member participating has the common interest at heart. This means that the conflict and its solution will add value and propel the organization forward with the best possible option available rather than what was simply available as a solution (Ramezan, 2011).
The challenge with dysfunctional conflicts is the fact that each party often feels completely justified to take up their respective positions, something that makes it incredibly hard for them to solve the problem on their own without any external intervention. This in my view is where leadership comes in. When I refer to leadership I don’t necessarily mean leadership through the occupation of a formal position within the chain of command or a similar hierarchy. Leadership in this context is more closely aligned to assertiveness and taking up the initiative by objectively helping others in their quest to resolve a given conflict they have. While a conflict generally refers to a serious disagreement between two or more parties, it is unrealistic for anybody to think that all conflicts are manifested in the same way. If this were the case, there would be a ‘one size fits all’ solution to all types of conflicts be they personal or inter-communal (Minizenberg et al, 2015).
One of the best examples for the manifestation of leadership is within an organization. This is because organizations provide countless opportunities for the occurrence of conflicts, mostly of an interpersonal nature. The conflicts are not necessarily a good thing but they are best analyzed in this scenario. Leadership within the organization also takes place in two main ways, formally and also informally. Both types of leadership are necessary for the resolution of conflicts. In the event that I am stationed in an organization it is highly likely that I will be positioned in either of the two forms of leadership. What is important to me is not the position I am in but rather my ability to adequately resolve the problem at hand. This means I need to have a good understanding of the structure of the organization, the culture that exists within the organization, existent conflict mitigation procedures or policies and also the key functions of different individuals in the positions they work.
I also need to be well aware of the various ways conflicts manifest themselves and the different ways of going about it. For me, a leader needs to be well equipped for his or her job so as to resolve each challenge with the appropriate tools and in the appropriate way. The proper resolution of a conflict brings about multi-faceted wins. At the basic level, the relationship between the individuals is protected. From a much wider point of view, the department they work in also gains, the goals become achieved and all in all the organization moves forward achieving its objectives to the various stakeholders (Arai, 2013).
Leadership and the Organizational Structure
The organizational structure whether in its graphic expression or the actual manifestation of the same usually makes up a hierarchy where some form of hegemony is applied with some individuals being superior and other being subordinate. The superiors will conventionally act as leaders and the respective point in the organizational structure they are in will determine how they lead, who they lead and how many people they lead. It also determines who they report to or who leads them. For a conventional organization there will be the top management, middle management and then ground personnel or an added layer of supervisory staff depending on the scope of the organization’s work. The top management can either be the owners of the organization or people entrusted by the owners to oversee the functioning of these entities. A manager at the top tends to have a few people reporting to him or her; these are the departmental administrators. The departmental administrators on the other hand oversee the supervisors in the various components of their sectors. The supervisory staff then oversees the workers on the ground that makes up the largest proportion (Chuang et al, 102).
This structure directly impacts the role of a leader and also the elements that are at stake for the group the leader is overseeing. Conflicts could occur at any of these levels, at times horizontally and at times vertically. Horizontal conflicts are those which are manifested between people at the same level of work within the organizational hierarchy. Vertical conflicts are those that occur between people who are at different levels of management. A leader needs to be prepared and able to work with the conflicting parties towards the achievement of a solution at any of these situations. If the leadership is formal and has some official title attached to it, the person will be obliged to spearhead the conflict resolution process as early as possible. This is because their terms of work give them express authority over a group of people working together. Informal leadership however limits the scope of the person attempting to solve the problem since their authority is mostly attributed to the level of familiarity they have with the two conflicting individuals or entities. A receptionist cannot for instance easily step in to resolve a conflict between two branch managers. A branch manager can however authoritatively oversee the resolution of a conflict between two receptionists.
From my experience and literature I have been exposed to, I have learnt that the success or failure of companies is often pegged on the relationships that exist between the key decision makers. Articles about the boardroom activities of the most successful organizations usually feature stories of serious disagreements that arose during the design and implementation of product ideas. The message is not about how much freedom people have to express themselves but about how the organizations have developed work environments where ideas can be freely shared. I would like to lead an organization in this manner, ensuring the organizational culture is one that is conducive for functional conflicts and also with adequate room for the resolution of dysfunctional conflicts. This can be best communicated across the organization through the top-down flow of information and ideas, basically starting from the top. If I disagree with my peer over a matter I will openly express my alternative approach to the issue at hand. At the same time I will be ready to listen to individuals whose ideas and thoughts are contrary to mine with respect to the solutions being put across. It will be necessary for the subordinates to witness these conflicts in reasoning take place in a respectful manner. At times one can present an alternative idea in a manner that appears to be an indirect attack on another person. This can quickly degenerate to a dysfunctional argument (Roemer, 2012).
Besides leading, I believe that leaders need to empower those who are following them. When this happens they will be able to make the most out of functional conflicts and also eliminate the negative impacts that can result from dysfunctional conflicts. This obliges me to take those I am leading through the constructive ways of bargaining and negotiating. The differences that people have in opinion and personality have the power to bring about gains or losses (MacKian and Simmons, 2013).
In conclusion I need to state that I see leadership as a continuous transformational process for the organization. With respect to the issue of conflict solving and conflict management, I believe the leader needs to use his or her discretion to ensure that the end result is an ethical one, bringing about the greatest possible good possible. I need to have a good understanding of the nature of conflicts, how they arise and also the implication they have to the organization. While the resolution of conflicts is my priority, I will not necessarily be on the ground solving each and every conflict that arises; on the contrary I will do my best to ensure the environment is suitable for the quick elimination of dysfunctional conflicts while ensuring that the best decisions are realized from functional conflicts.
References
MacKian, S., & Simons, J. M. (Eds.). (2013). Leading, Managing, Caring: Understanding Leadership and Management in Health and Social Care. Routledge.
Arai, T. (2013). Functional Coexistence: Conflict Transformation in the Context of Mutual Non-Recognition (Conference Paper).
Minzenberg, M. J., Lesh, T., Niendam, T., Yoon, J. H., Cheng, Y., Rhoades, R., & Carter, C. S. (2015). Conflict-related anterior cingulate functional connectivity is associated with past suicidal ideation and behavior in recent-onset schizophrenia. Journal of psychiatric research, 65, 95-101.
Arai, T. (2014). From Existential Conflict to Functional Coexistence: Lessons from Afghanistan, the Taiwan Strait, and Europe during the Cold War (Forthcoming). Global Discourse.
Hartnell, C. A., Ou, A. Y., & Kinicki, A. (2011). Organizational culture and organizational effectiveness: a meta-analytic investigation of the competing values framework’s theoretical suppositions. Journal of Applied Psychology,96(4), 677.
Chatman, J. A., Caldwell, D. F., O’Reilly, C. A., & Doerr, B. (2014). Parsing organizational culture: How the norm for adaptability influences the relationship between culture consensus and financial performance in high‐technology firms.Journal of Organizational Behavior, 35(6), 785-808.
Chuang, L. M., Liu, C. C., & Tsai, W. C. (2012). The Impact of Creative Personalities and Organizational Structure on Organizational Innovation.International Research Journal of Finance and Economics, 102.
Ramezan, M. (2011). Intellectual capital and organizational organic structure in knowledge society: How are these concepts related?. International Journal of Information Management, 31(1), 88-95.
De Wit, F. R., Greer, L. L., & Jehn, K. A. (2012). The paradox of intragroup conflict: a meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 97(2), 360.
Römer, M., Giebels, E., & Rispens, S. (2012, June). Always Getting What You Want? Employee Expectations About Leadership Conflict Behavior in Co-Worker Conflict. In Employee Expectations About Leadership Conflict Behavior in Co-Worker Conflict (June 15, 2012). Intl. Association for Conflict Management, IACM 25th Annual Conference. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1571-9979.2012.00340.x
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Consider the following scenario: major top-down, nationally imposed, non-negotiable change has to be implemented in the curriculum at an educational institution, training site or learning context known to you. This change affects the learning in this organisation/site.
Imagine four people, one from each of the four positions presented in Part 2 of the Study Guide.
– positivism, interpretivism, constructivism, critical research – discussing this change and the issues that it presents for them.
For each of these four positions, identify a research question appropriate to the paradigm and explain how this research question would be enacted, i.e. what data would need to be produced. (approx. 2000 words)
Using what you have learned from the Study Guide, including the embedded readings and previous assignments, identify and explain the differences there might be between the positions held by the four colleagues. (approx. 2500 words)
In arguing for the different positions, did you feel that you would align yourself with any one position? Explain your reasons for any compatibility. If you did not align yourself with any one position, explain why you found it difficult to take up a personal position (approx. 500 words).
SAMPLE ANSWER
Introduction
For decades now, the paradigm wars have continued amongst the supporters that argue fiercely for the superiority of their paradigms of choice. This has therefore resulted in a paradigm dialogue that has seen supporters accept their differences and come to the understanding that each and every paradigm in education has an equal importance(Hargreaves, pp 161-76.1997). In other words, there is no research paradigm that is superior since each has a specific purpose in providing a distinct approach in which knowledge is acquired and dispensed. This clearly depicts the need for educational researches geared towards providing an understanding on the key theoretical and methodological perspectives. The outcomes of this research studies should, therefore, empower and envisage new practices and policies that have the capacity to meet the current emerging needs of education.
Research evidence that is developed to inform education practices remains an intergral element that can be acquired from different sources. The variability in the structure of research and design through which evidence are obtained is exhaustive. In achieving the demands of this paper, it is necessary to heed that I shall incorporate the two essential research approaches, the qualitative and quantitative methods in achieving data towards a course(Hargreaves, pp 161-76.1997). Different forms of qualitative and quantitative evidence obtained from the research method can, therefore, allow an individual to examine and explore the disciplines that are encapsulated within the context of educational research. It is significant to note that these two evidences provide data to the endless dilemmas that exist within the educational setting.
This research paper will be divided into four sub-sections with the first section addressing the scenario and the context of the need for change in the curriculum at an educational institution and its context. The second section depicts the different paradigms and how researchis employed in understanding them. An analysis is given in the third section that displays the differences between these paradigms and finally the paper analyses my explanation on how to align these paradigms.
Part 1
This research process begins with a controversial situation that raises a critical question (Aberystwyth University 2014). The situation that lies in this study involves that of the German Government declaring that schools should change their mediums of instruction from German to English in all of their subjects. There is also need to develop a fully functional English environment with the aim of promoting proficiency in the greater use of the language, a factor that will enable the institution and its learners to globally compete through a standardized language. Before carrying out research, there is need to undertake a certain school of thought. In order to also formulate research questions, there is a significant need for understanding the operating paradigms in as much as this paradigm may precede the research questions. In this study, the primary operating paradigms include; positivism, interpretivism, critical research and constructivism.
Part 2
An analysis of the Four Paradigms and Proposed Research Questions
The term paradigm needs a clear understanding. Hargreaves (1997) insinuates that a paradigm infers to a comprehensive world view, belief systems, or conceptual framework that has the capacity to guide a research and practice within a given field (p.44). From the lenses of philosophy, a paradigm entails the existing views of the nature or reality (i.e., ontology) whether it is internal or external to the knower; a related perception on the type of knowledge that is generated and the underlying standards that justify this functions (i.e., epistemology); and a disciplined approach through which knowledge is produced (i.e., methodology).The main paradigms in this research study includes;
Positivist Paradigm;
The concept of positivism bases its theory on the numerical and statistical interactions of a study. The holders of this school of thought make use of the quantitative research methods to gather quantitative data that leads to an increased understanding of the external objectives and realities. Considering the proponents of ontology and epistemology, the positivists pursue approaches aimed at determining the casual links in a study(Helsper, & Eynon, pp. 503–20. 2010). This clearly indicates a point when English is introduced as an instructional standard.This would mean that English would be viewed as an essential subject that fosters and develops proficient speaking within the learners. The positivists in this line would either support or refute this approach through empiricalindications that replicates knowledge. The positivists may, therefore, ask the below-stated research question;
How effectual would an English immersed environment and modification approach as a medium of instruction impact proficiency in learners?
Having determined the research question, the positivists, therefore, take approaches in defining their methodological approaches. It is, therefore, significant to note that the holders of this view align themselves with a quantitative methodology that matches their concepts and objectivity. However, the challenge that is likely to occur is in the fact that the distinction between the qualitative and quantitative research models may prove unhelpful (Helsper, &Eynon, pp. 503–20. 2010). It is, therefore, significant to mention that the research question establishes a cause and effect approach since it questions the effectiveness of the study. In addition to this, the question also quantifies the proficiency of using English as an instructional medium and compares the pre-policies and post policies of the outcomes.
In order to develop an internal consistency within these paradigms, there is need to consider the fact that some options tend to be congruous and may not be determined through a research methodology as inclined on the paradigmatic position (Helsper, & Eynon, pp. 503–20. 2010). This therefore gives the positivist an opportunity to make use of the quantitative research approaches that are geared towards the collection of empirical data that are referenced, a factor that points to the need of encapsulating these methodologies with research questions.
Through a deep understanding of the paradigm and its methodologies, the positivists are in a position to determine the most efficient design framework. Positivism is in this case knitted through a scientific and experimental process that produces statistical data. In this case, data collected is quantifiable in nature, and using this data gives a comparison and establishes statistical cause and effect (Helsper, & Eynon, pp. 503–20. 2010). The random control trail (RCT) remains one of the essential experimental approaches that are closely tied to the positivistic paradigm since it identifies and determines the impact of an intervention.
The use of the RCT as an experimental tool has been determined to provide credible information on the manner in which these paradigms are effective. However, it is vital to consider the broadness of experimental studies, a factor that calls for the development of research questions that address the proficiency of these paradigms with these requiring regular follow-ups on the students (Open University 2014a).On the other hand, through the use of a longitudinal study, the size and scope of the study may be similar to that of the experimental approach but differs in its inference and generalizations. The positivists consequently have the capacity to conduct short-termed research approaches as compared to the longitudinal approach that is considered to be long-termed and consumes more time. The combination of these two approaches therefore provides the positivists with the required data in response to their research questions.
Interpretivist Paradigm;
According to this viewpoint, learning is considered as conceptual. The holders of this view allege that individuals remain the constructors of reality (Open University, 2014a). The environment in which the interpretivists live in is constituted as the origin of beliefs and attitudes. In the formulation of a research question that is in line with their views, the holders of this ideology are likely to take an individual stance. With the concepts of individuality and perceptivity in their perceptions, an interpretivist is likely to ask this as a research question;
How can a student’s self-identity be impacted in a fully immersed second language environment?
It is essential to note that this research question aims to display how the changes involved in this paradigm may influence a learner. The interpretivists are consequently likely to pursue explanations on the orientations that intrigue the development of the distinctive orientations(Open University 2014b). The formulation of research questions that are ontologically weighed through the lenses of epistemological orientation enables the interpretivist’s paradigm to develop qualitative research approaches through the collection of qualitative data.
It is, therefore, essential to acknowledge the fact that a research question should guide in the development of a research methodology (Open University 2014b).According to the interpretivist view, it is critical to determining the reality of the impact that may be caused on a student’s self-identity as a result of an introduced change. Changes are more likely to occur over a short span of time with this leading to the interpretivist core aim in exploration.
To gather the required data that answers the interpretivist research question, the holders of this school of thought may choose to conduct an ethnographic study since this design framework provides a deeper explanation of the concepts involved or through a longitudinal case study that combines the proponents of these two frameworks in providing accurate individualized data over a period (Open University 2014c). Through an ethnographic design that is developed through open-ended questions, the interpretivists are in a position to analyze the things that are done and said within different contexts. This clearly indicates that data is collected through an ethnographic frame with the changes in the use of quantitative approach in data collections still considered as credible.
The interpretivists therefore purse approaches of determining self-identities through the use of open-ended interviews coupled with observations that give proof of the intensity in the collection of data (Open University 2014c). Interviews conducted in this form consequently explore the self-identity of individuals and gives more light into the manner in which these identities are developed through an ethnographic design framework. The interpretivist, therefore, will analyze the data that wholly depends on the rationale for the study.
Constructivist’s Paradigm;
This paradigm holds that reality is a continual process that is constructed by an individual through interaction and symbols, and also that reality can be shared. Through the eyes of the constructivists, the acquisition of knowledge remains an active process where an individual’s mind is agentive and meaning is negotiated within the social environment (Prensky, pp 1–6. 2001). The constructivist paradigm upholds the element of talk as vital since meaning and interpretation can only be shared through talk. In accordance with this scenario, the constructivists will agree with the fact that the implementation of an English environment may have an impact on communication between the students will be enhanced in terms of their abilities. However it is crucial to heed that this may also result in the prevention of the necessary development processes that may promote the students understanding.
Familiarization with this new language and other environmental factors over a period of time may also have an impact on an individual’s life. With this, it is essential to note that the constructivist may develop such a research question;
To what degree and depth will the confidence of the students and their contributions to learning be impacted by changing the medium of learning from German to English?
The qualitative approach of data collection is an instrument that is associated with constructivism. It is, therefore, important to mention that while carrying out a constructivist oriented research, it is essential to utilize a mixed approach of research (Prensky, pp 1–6. 2001). Before choosing an appropriate research and data collection methods, the constructivists need to determine the data requirements that will address the objectives of the research and its questions. Also, a factor to consider is the opinions and interactions of students since these remains beneficial in disclosing the changes and initiating an understanding of how the changes impact the students
To gather the required data in addressing the research questions, the holders of this view may resort to a longitudinal case study approach. This approach allows the research to be conducted over a period of time giving the constructivist the opportunity to track changes (Prensky, pp 1–6. 2001). Investigations can consequently be conducted through case studies through the inclusion of a real-life experience that may be incorporated through the designed framework. Upon the selection of an appropriate design framework, there is need as determined by constructivism in taking cognizance of data collection approaches that takes the opinions and perceptions of the respondents based on their individual experiences. The use of semi-structured and qualitative approaches of research is in this case considered as essential in aiding the collection of data.
Critical Research Paradigm;
This paradigm elevates the social elements of change through a research approach that reviews the greater social context.Critical research approaches in this case need to be designed in an ontological manner that are centered on realities developed through other forces that are subjected on the element of change. Knowledge and reality in light of epistemology are tied together through an interactive process that may be challenging in separating (Shawer, pp. 333–59.2010). A critical research therefore pursues avenues of exposing the inequalities and divisions caused socially with the view that by changing and challenging the social contexts, the inequalities and divisions will be mitigated. In this context, critical research needs to consider the changes that occur in policies and the manner in which impacts non-English speaking tutors. Even though this paradigm aims at developing and advancing proficiency, the marginalization of those who are not proficient in English is likely to occur as a result of the developed policies. Researches may therefore consider asking the questions listed below:
How will the teachers who lack proficiency in speaking English be impacted by these changes in policy?
In consideration of the fact that the theoretical considerations are in this case constituted and the research questions also framed, researchers only need to choose an approach aimed at conducting the study. Sources determine that there is need to take cognizance of the value of study and avoid the element of subjectivity and duality (Shawer, pp. 333–59.2010). The qualitative approach remains the most preferred methodological approach in conducting such a study since the voices of the marginalized individuals also play a significant role.
The interpretation of research whether it is qualitative or quantitative relies upon the researches clarity in the theoretical stances that are developed with the aim of guiding the research methodologies and data collection an interpretation approaches. In voicing out issues, it is therefore essential to make use of the qualitative and quantitative research approaches that shared the same characteristics with the action research considering that the perceptions of the researchers are directed towards the belief that knowledge is a social construct.
Part 3
Differences in Positions Held
When research questions are tackled from a different angle, it is noticeable that there are ontological and epistemological bearings that are pegged with these studies. This therefore determines that the problem and develops a research approach that collects data and analysis’s with the aim of establishing a solution to this (Hargreaves, pp. 3-17. 2007).Ontology in relation to this has the capacity to question what is available for a study. In line with the views of the positivists, a research study remains an external objective reality where evidence is empirically collected by observations made and experimentations. The positiviststake consideration of the statistical relationships and casual connections that exist in the manner in which human behavior is defined as a quantifiable variable.
On the other hand, the perception that an individual’s behavior remains stable across different contexts is however disputed by the interpretivist since this remains the study of the external realities. The interpretivist position believes that reality is an individually constructed concept that is primarily based on apersonalized analysis of a situation(Hargreaves,pp. 3-17. 2007). The interpretivist criticizes the positivists for neglecting the elements of interpreting individuals and refutes the allegations that casual effects are considered linear.
In order to understand the aspect of behavior in the lenses of the interpretivists view, there is a need to take consideration of how sense is derived out of the world. In this case, differences are likely to be seen between the positivist approach and their orientation with the interpretivists in the manner in which reality is developed, a factor that leads to apt reality (Open University 2014a). However, researchers tent to reject the positivist approach on objectivity and neutrality. These researches consequently argue against an interpretivists view since these views are developed on social elements that fail to understand the behaviors and interactions of human beings.
The constructionist share insights with the critical researcher’s ontological views that perceive reality as a component that is greater than an individual, but the constructivist believe that reality can only be shaped through a process of communication. The constructivist also has variable views that differ from that of the positivist’s ontological stance(Open University 2014a). According to the holders of this paradigm, the reality is not objective but subjective and only depends upon the shared meaning. In as much as the constructivists do not agree with the fact that different interpretations can be developed in line with this same phenomenon’s, they share the same notion with the interpretivist. In addition to this, the positivists believe that reality can only be understood in light of a procedural approach that includes objectivity a factor that implies that the phenomenon is uniform and measurable across different contexts (Open University 2014b).
According to the positivists, there is a distinction between objects and subjects that grant a value-free research that are transparent and free from fallacies. On the other hand, the interpretivists stick to their views that perceive the element of value as inherent within a research process. However, research tends to lie on the interpretivists since it acknowledges that value tends to be present when a researcher is neutral (Open University 2014b). Critical researchers therefore dig deep in viewing change and empowerment as an approach directed towards critiquing the interpretivists, with this considered to lack credibility is some areas. Constructivists in line with this believe that reality remains a shared construct developed through interaction. Here, meaning is developed through a social process on an agentive mind with the ontological and epistemological orientations having the capacity to approaches of conceptualizing and addressing issues.
The polarization of research methods therefore takes precedence in two approaches that incorporate the qualitative and quantitative approaches that are aligned towards particular paradigms (Open University 2014c). Positivism centrally relies upon the integration of qualitative data while the interpretivist and the constructivists hugely focus on qualitative methods in the collection of data.
The qualitative and quantitative research methods in line with these paradigms has been critiqued by several schools of thought that believe that all research studies are designed under the directives of the qualitative and quantitative methods of research and that combining both this methods can be beneficial (Open University 2014d). Tied to the quantitative-qualitative dichotomy is an objective-subjective methodology that believes the qualitative approach to data collection produces objective data that is free from biases whereas the quantitative method in inherently subjective and can be contextualized.
Researchers who use the qualitative approach are therefore bound to make subjective decisions during the synthesis of data. These can determine the neutrality of the research approach that is prevalent when learning approaches may be hard to achieve (Stylianou, et.al). The researchers who incline towards the positivist side view the aspect of neutrality as theoretical assumptions presented in a methodological approach.
An experimental model in this case determines the viability of an educational intervention and its effectiveness and depicts the use of a randomized control trail as an element in accomplishing this study. Through a well formulated and structured RCT the holders of this ideology can establish some of the casual ties that related to this study. Torgerson (2009) recognizes the need to employ this approach in a complex scenario however; he overlooks the errors that are likely to occur through this approach (Torgerson, 2009). It is therefore important to mention that a randomized allocation of a subject is a significant factor and without it, researchers are bound to experience biases that may invalidate an experiment.
The aspects of scale and scope also remain significant factors to mention. Torgerson (2009) suggests that there are quantitative limitations to experimental designs and asserting that a qualitative study remains an important research method. Blatchford (2010) alleges that a momentous study comes from the avoidance of polarization of the qualitative and quantitative methods. This clearly indicates that the differences that a research holds can be conducted through the use of an alternative approach that aims at increasing the pedagogical validity of the findings thus aligning this proponent to the constructivist orientation.
A longitudinal study that is used as a design frame and is mainly aligned with the positivistic paradigm is mixed with other design methods that operate under various paradigms. These studies according to studies are considerably large and can only be implemented over duration of time, a factor that makes them more prevalent in the production of generalized views. Similar to experimental designs, the longitudinal method uses a randomized approach to selecting participants. Randomization in this aspect is not initiated to castigate the differences between the participants but to produce a sample that represents the population as opposed to the RCT method
The use of both the qualitative and quantitative approaches intrigues the aspect of including an investigation to ascertain the responses to the research questions and whether they have meaning (Gage, pp. 4-10. 2009). However, it is significant to underline the positivists in many instances are only concerned the validity of data and its replicability, aspects that are not in any way associated with the qualitative methodology. The interpretivist and the constructivist views in this case would both conduct a research approach that unveils the opinions and perspectives of the outcomes over time duration.
In a case study design frame, it is imperative to understand that the researchers have the capacity to conduct a study and discover the authenticities of life since the functions of these design frames are based on an individual or at times they are combined with other design frames. This approach shares its similarities with ethnography in as much as the two design frames may differ in their implementation (Hammersley, pp. 3-14. 2006). Case studies enable the researchers to be placed as observers whereas in ethnography the researcher is viewed as a participant. Considering the proponents of ontology and epistemology, the positivists pursue approaches aimed at determining the casual links in as study (Helsper, & Eynon, pp. 503–20. 2010).
This clearly indicates a point when English is introduced as an instructional standard. This would mean that English would be viewed as an essential subject that fosters and develops proficient speaking within the learners. The positivists in this line would either support or refute this approach through empirical indications that replicates knowledge. The positivists may, therefore, ask the below-stated research question;Critical researcher paradigm pursues approaches of exposing the inequalities that exist within a social environment by revitalizing change. In as much as case studies and ethnographies allows critical researcher to explore the voices of different individual within the society, an action research would only align its functions in challenging social practices (Hammersley, pp. 3-14. 2006). An action research explicitly rejects a value-free research objective and expanding on this, it also rejects positivism. However, an action research is weaved to the interpretivism paradigm a factor that initiates the efforts of critical studies, a factor that contrasts the difference in the mentioned design frames.
Part 4
Through this study, it is essential to ascertain that the discussions have mainly concentrated on how the paradigmatic positions have the capacity to shape the decisions and choices of individuals (Livingstone, pp. 207-231.2010). These positions can also determine the manner, in which a problem is viewed, how research questions are formulated, including the methodological approaches, the design of a time frame, the procedures for gathering data and the analysis of the collected data as determined by the research rationale. This process is, therefore, cumulative with this point now focusing on my opinions and views in regards to the analysis of the differences between the four paradigms. In line with this, it is important to note that I am aligned substantially to the constructivist paradigm.
I have discovered that I immensely relate to the ontological ideology that believes that reality is a socially constructed approach. The ideas behind the agentive minds that purport that an individual may be active within the process of construction revolve around the wealth of knowledge I have acquired within the sector of education. As indicated in the constructivist concept within the field of education, the aspect of interaction plays a significant role in creating an in-depth understanding of a problem and growing the levels of knowledge. This approach remains one of the essential elements I am pursuing in my classroom environment. According to the constructivists and the interpretivism, there are certain ontological similarities that the two methods face. Both of these ideologies centrally focus on individuals, a characteristic that I wholly disagree with.
Considering the fact that I have gained a lot of knowledge through the duties I have performed in different social environments and cultures, the attention that this paradigm gives an individual was not well received within my own ontological and epistemological orientations. Basing the fact from my own theoretical analysis, I find constructivism an important element since it refutes on the factors that make the research methodology dichotomous aspect and allows research to develop from the roots of investigating a problem. Hodkinson and Macleod (2010) allege that research methods have various weaknesses and strengths, and those researchers need to determine the appropriate methods that have the capacity to address the research questions. A closer focus on these paradigms clearly revealed to me that the positivistic paradigm structured its research approaches through a quantitative approach focusing on receiving an empirical data. Due to this factor it is essential to note that the end results of the study only gave a generalized and a replicable outcome.
It is, therefore, necessary to detail that these approaches appeared to derive the complexities of a learning approach and the individualism that is presented by this approaches. In my view, positivism mitigates the efforts of a research approach by conforming to an already structured method of research. In addition to this, positivism also differs with my knowledge on how quantitative data is gathered. To complete the wider picture, the idea that qualitative methods and data can be integrated would be an important element in a research study. I also agree with on the characteristics of critical research that include the ontological and epistemological elements. This is under the consideration of the fact thatthey make the pursuit of social knowledge and change ideal within the context of neutrality and objectivity.
Conclusion
Research evidence that is developed to inform education practice remains an important element that can be acquired from different sources. The variability in the structure of research and design through which evidence are obtained is exhaustive. Through an analysis into the paradigms provided in this paper, it was determined that research plays a central role in understanding their functions (Lather, pp. 63–84. 2008). In other words, there is no research paradigm that is superior since each has a specific purpose in providing a distinct approach in which knowledge is acquired and dispensed. This clearly depicts the need for educational researches geared towards providing an understanding of the key theoretical and methodological perspectives. The outcomes of this research studies should, therefore, empower and envisage new practices and policies that have the capacity to meet the current emerging needs of education.
References
Gage, N.L. 2009 ‘The Paradigm Wars and Their Aftermath: A ‘Historical’ Sketch of Research on Teaching since 1989′, Educational Researcher, vol. 18, no. 7, pp. 4-10 [Online] Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1177163.
Hammersley, M. 2006 ‘Ethnography: problems and prospects’, Ethnography and Education, 1:1, 3-14, DOI: 10.1080/17457820500512697 [Online]. Available at http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17457820500512697
Hargreaves, D. 2007 ‘Teaching as a research-based profession: Possibilities and prospects.’ in Martyn Hammersley (ed.) Educational Research and Evidence-Based Practice, London, Sage, pp. 3-17
Hargreaves, E. 1997 ‘The diploma disease in Egypt: Learning, teaching, and the monster of the secondary leaving certificate.’ Assessment in Education 4, no. 1:161-76.
Helsper, E.J. and Eynon, R. 2010 ‘Digital natives: where is the evidence?’, British Educational Research Journal, vol. 36, no. 3, pp. 503–20.
Hodkinson, P. and Macleod, F. 2010 ‘Contrasting concepts of learning and contrasting research methodologies: affinities and biases, British Educational Research Journal, vol. 36, no. 2, pp. 173–89. DOI: 10.1080/01411920902780964
Lather, P. 2008 ‘Issues of validity in openly ideological research: between a rock and a soft place’, Interchange, vol. 17, no. 4, pp. 63–84.
Livingstone, D.W. 2010 ‘Job requirements and workers’ learning: formal gaps, informal closure, systemic limits’, Journal of Education and Work, 23:3, 207-231, DOI: 10.1080/13639081003785732 [Online]. Available at http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13639081003785732
Open University 2014 E891 Study Guide 2.5 Constructionism and post-structualist theories; Comparing Constructionist Theories, Open University 2014a E891 Study Guide 2.3 Scientific Theory and the positivist Paradigm
Open University 2014b E891 Study Guide 2.5 Constructionism and post-structualist theories; Theoretical positions within Constructionism, Open University 2014c E891 Study Guide 2.5 Constructionism and post-structualist theories,
Open University 2014d E891 Study Guide 3.2Working within Research frames; Asking questions in interviews,
Prensky, M. 2001 ‘Digital natives, digital immigrants.Part 1’, On the Horizon, 9(5), 1–6.
Shawer, S. 2010 ‘Communicative-based curriculum innovations between theory and practice: implications for EFL curriculum development and student cognitive and affective change’, Curriculum Journal, vol. 21, no.3, pp. 333–59.
Shawer, S. 2010 ‘Communicative-based curriculum innovations between theory and practice: implications for EFL curriculum development and student cognitive and affective change’, Curriculum Journal, vol. 21, no.3, pp. 333–59.
Sheehy, K. 2009‘Teaching word recognition to children with severe learning difficulties: an exploratory comparison of teaching methods’, Educational Research, 51:3, 379-391, DOI: 10.1080/00131880903156955 [Online]. Available at http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00131880903156955
Stylianou, Vasso; Savva, Andreas; Vraka, Maria &Serghiou, Andreas 2004: ‘Information and Communication Technology: First-Aid to the Private Tutoring Problem?’.Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Computer-Based Learning in Science. Nicosia: University of Cyprus, pp.334- 343.
Torgerson, C.J. (2009) ‘Randomized controlled trials in education research: a case study of an individually randomized pragmatic trial’, Education 3-13: International Journal of Primary, Elementary and Early Years Education, 37:4, 313-321, DOI: 10.1080/03004270903099918 [Online]. Available at http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03004270903099918 (Accessed 24th February 2014).
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In contrast to ethical philosophies that focus on moral obligations, pleasure, or utility, Aristotle’s ethics centers on his unique understanding of the good life, which aims at happiness or “flourishing” (eudaimonia) by means of the habitual cultivation of virtue (areté).
For this assignment, please write a short paper that examines the role of virtue in the good life by carefully comparing Aristotle’s account, given in Books 1-3 of his Nicomachean Ethics (Marino, 43
-84) with another text that describes moral virtue.
N.T. Wright, “What Am I Here For?” (Blackboard). N.T. Wright is a New Testament scholar who has written numerous books on Jesus Christ, the Apostle Paul, and the early church. This essay is from his recent book After You Believe: Why Christian Faith Matters (2012). He notes that while Christian ministers, pastors, and priests often focus on getting people to believe in Christianity, or to join the church, they are rarely able to describe how life is supposed to be different after someone believes. To address this challenge, he considers the moral teaching of the New Testament according to the category of “character,” which he believes to be synonymous with “virtue.”
Writing Instructions
This essay requires careful reading of Aristotle’s text, which is complex and often difficult to summarize. In order to make sense of Aristotle’s views, it will be important to show the connection between his main ideas, such as: happiness/flourishing (eudaimonia), virtue, habit, and the doctrine of the mean or
intermediate. This summary of Aristotle is a central part of your paper, and you should strive to write it concisely and accurately.
In writing about your comparison text, your essay should clearly explain how it relates to Aristotle’s conception of ethics. In developing this section, you
may want to consider the following questions:
What insights does this text provide for ethics?
How does this text compare to Aristotle’s understanding of virtue?
Does this text largely agree with Aristotle and so provide additional support for his ideas, or does it offer a criticism or an opposing position?
Suggestions for Writing a Successful Paper:
You should compose your paper as if writing for a general audience, made up of persons who are intelligent but unfamiliar with the authors or texts you are discussing.
Your introductory paragraph should clearly communicate both the topic and the thesis of your essay. The function of this introduction is to orient the reader to what you are writing about and to the position you are arguing in the paper. Your paper should also include an appropriate conclusion paragraph that sums up your argument and restates your overall position.
Although this paper is short and focuses on interpretation, it still requires that you identify and defend a clear thesis. This means that your paper should not merely be a collection of general statements or assertions about a text, nor should you simply give your opinion without offering adequate support.
Instead, you should back up your explanation with examples or evidence from the texts. In other words, you should give your readers reasons for thinking that what you are saying is accurate.
It is important to recognize the difference between thesis statements and themes/topics. A theme or topic simply names the issue under discussion in the
paper, while a thesis statement makes a claim about that issue. For example, this sentence names a theme/topic: “In this paper I will talk about Aristotle,
the New Testament, and virtue.” By contrast, this thesis statement makes a particular claim about that topic: “In contrast to Aristotle’s description of
moral virtue as cultivated by natural habit and upbringing, the New Testament presents genuine virtue as a gift of the Spirit.” For more information on thesis statements, see http://www.unc.edu/depts/wcweb/handouts/thesis.html.
Your sentences and paragraphs should clearly communicate what you are trying to say, and you should organize these in such a way that readers can easily see how your individual points relate to the paper’s overall argument. Avoid excessively informal language, contractions, sentence fragments, and run-on sentences. Also, take care to structure each paragraph around a unified and coherent theme that relates to your thesis. (For more information on writing clear and effective paragraphs, see http://www.unc.edu/depts/wcweb/handouts/paragraphs.html.
Writing a strong and successful paper requires backing up your claims with fitting quotations. There is no specific number of quotations that you should use, but in general it is better to use several brief quotations rather than a few long ones. When including a quotation, make sure that it fits in with what you are writing in a way that will be clear to your readers. In some cases, you may need to provide additional information to clarify the meaning of the
quotation.
This assignment does not require any additional research beyond the texts mentioned. However, you are welcome to use additional sources for help, provided that you cite them. You may want to consult the following online source on Aristotle: http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-ethics/. If you are writing on Aristotle and Augustine, you may also find this page helpful (especially section four, “Ontology and Eudaimonism”) http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/augustine/. If you consult these sources, be sure to list them (along with any other sources) in a bibliography or works
cited page, even if you did not quote them in the paper.
Formatting Guidelines
Please give your paper an appropriate title. (You do not need a separate title page). Include your name and the date on the first page of the paper, either
on the top left corner or the top right corner.
The paper should be 3-4 pages, in 12 point Times New Roman font, with 1” margins.
The paper should be formatted according to the Chicago Manual of Style. (For more information on this style, see http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/tools_citationguide.html.) However, for the sake of simplicity, you may cite the texts parenthetically with the author’s name followed by the page number, as “(Aristotle, 25)” or “(Wright, 10).” You can also cite the additional chapters from Augustine’s City of God, Book XIX (on Blackboard) as “(Augustine, Ch. 25).” If you are choosing your own text, you may also cite it in parentheses with the author’s name and page number, but be sure to include the full information in the bibliography.
Bibliographic entries in Chicago style should be formatted as followed (this is the entry for the Wright text):
Wright, N.T., “What Am I Here For?” in After You Believe: Why Christian Character Matters (New York: HarperOne, 2016), pp. 1-26.
Your bibliography should include a citation from every source that you consulted for the paper. The bibliography will not count as one of your pages.
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2. Why does John Duns Scotus hold that we can be certain with respect to knowledge of our own acts? Give a critical evaluation of his view.
Length: 800 words; do not submit essays that exceed 800 words. Bibliography and title page
do not count towards the word limit (footnotes do). By the way: No separate title page or
bibliography are required: simply put your name, student number, and utoronto email address
on the top of the first page
n? “Is personal criticism required?”: All philosophical writing should exhibit a critical
engagement with the relevant material, i.e. an essay should show that you have weighted for
you the pros and cons of a given position. The criticism is supposed to be personal, insofar as
you are expected to take a stand, i.e. to argue for an opinion.
n? (1) Make sure that your paper is written in acceptable English. Use correct spelling,
punctuation, and grammar. (2) Your references to primary texts should be exact. (3) Aim for
clarity in your writing! (4) Proofread your paper before you turn it in!
n? Submission of papers: Students have to submit your essay electronically via the Blackboard
course website. A submission tool has been created, which you should be able to find under
Course Materials. Submissions will be scanned by turnitin, a plagiarism detection software.
Please see the syllabus for the remark on turnitin! Make sure that you submit your essay to
the right TA.
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Drawing only on the readings for this topic, examine the tensions between the claim to individual autonomy and the obligation to conform to the expectations of the wider community. Answer with reference to immunization. You should discuss the tensions firstly in the broader, theoretical context, before using your chosen issue to illustrate the tensions. In other words, the issue is not the thesis or focus of the discussion of the essay—the issue merely illustrates the discussion. You can draw on sources from outside the reader but only to give the issue some context.
SAMPLE ANSWER
Individualism vs Commuunitarianism
Introduction
The friction between liberalism and communitarianism has become a prominent centre of argument in the world and today the issue remains both extremely complex and to a larger extent not resolved. Some scholars feel that it is an impasse between individual independence and communitarian thinking that dictates the differences. The constitution which is composed of the bill of rights talks about the rights of each person in the society. These principles are contained in the liberal argument. However, on the other hand, those who support communitarianism believe that a society is a social set up hence people complement each other (Coltheart, 2013).
Discussion
The health of the public health is controlled by rules and regulations. Communicable diseases require immunization so as to contain them. However, whether to force people to get immunized or to let people decide for themselves has remained a very controversial subject. To assume that it is easier to achieve human dignity without prior consideration of their social surrounding is to fail to appreciate the community as the defining factor of people’s identity. Communitarian critics argue that human rights advocates are the main cause of social breakdown. Human rights have been used to promote individual freedom. The customary law according to some scholars is used to enhance independence hence some level of worthiness among individuals. These factors promote social characters that ensure the community is well protected away from any form of threat like the infectious disease.
According to some scholars, communitarianism places more emphasis on the importance of respecting independence of every individual hence human rights. This is in contrast to the perception that they propose adherence to the universally acceptable principles which guide the way people behave.
On the other hand, based on individual autonomy, philosophers argue that the principle comes with a moral obligation. An individual has the powers to choose and evaluate each decision before agreeing to do anything. According to this principle, an individual is not mandated to subscribe to a universally accepted norm in society. Based on this argument, an individual is perceived to be rational hence reasons and makes an independent move. In the case of immunization, an individual is able to reflect on the end results of this undertaking including those he or she thinks are right and wrong. Individual analyses under liberal theory entails considering the effects that a decision has on others. The most important of all the interests thought about is the one that stands at a maximum point. Therefore the individual decision will be the one that enhances justice and protects individual rights to existence and liberty.
However, according to the communitarian critics of liberalism, the perception of individual autonomy in line with moral principle is not real. Based on this point, it is argued that moral agents in a realistic society do not decide what they want to do. Such kind of people does not have a uniform standing point in terms of their moral principles. Moral standpoint is ultimately determined by the environment. Based on this argument, what is considered moral is very particular hence deciding on what is moral is not very possible. According to Communitarians, what is good dictates what is right. A complete moral principle should therefore constitute all these moral norms (Kymlicka, 2012).
According to the above argument, communitarian as compared to individual autonomy respects the shared understandings of different individuals. However, liberal principles challenge the communitarian point of view in terms of moral identity of the whole society. In addition, the principle challenges the fact that internal evaluation is capable of differentiating between good and bad practices within the society. The liberals criticize the thinking that communitarian represents the views of all the people. According to these proponents, communitarianism only represents few individuals in the society (Mulhall & Swift, 2014).
Immunization is perceived by communitarians as being a direct link with the people within a society. The result of this association benefits every individual within the society. The shared good among all the individuals within the community enhances the bonding of all the members. Moral standing of the entire community is well defined by these principles besides its justification (Okin, 2013).
Conclusion
Individual independence and communitarian engagement are both very important principles when it comes to adoption of an immunization program. Every decision taken by either an individual or the entire community has a direct impact on the livelihoods of the whole society. The most important factor that dictates the way people behave in a society is the moral principles. One has to consider individual interest and the interest of the entire community when making any decision. Consequently, both principles are good hence ought to be chosen based on individual preferences. This move will eliminate cases of tension within the society when it comes to the immunization program which is a social activity.
References
Coltheart, L. 2013. ‘Desire, Consent and Liberal theory’ in C. Pateman & E. Gross (eds.), Feminist Challenges: Social and Political Theory. Boston: NorthEastern University Press
Kymlicka, W. 2012. Liberalism, Community and Culture. Oxford: Clarendon Press
Mulhall, S. and Swift, A. 2014. Liberals and Communitarians. Oxford: Blackwell
