In 2000, the crude mortality rate from all causes for Haiti (a very impoverished country) was 6.0 deaths per 1,000 persons. In contrast, the crude mortality rate from all causes for the United States was 10.4 deaths per 1,000 persons.
Then respond to the following:
What are some of the factors you would want to consider in assessing such a difference in mortality?
Discuss possible explanations as to why the crude mortality rate is lower in Haiti than in the United States.
SAMPLE ANSWER
Measuring Disease Frequency
Different countries experience different rates of mortality brought about by varied reasons. Crude mortality rate helps to estimate the number of deaths of people in mid-year. Comparing the crude mortality rate of various countries can help stakeholders to enhance the quality of health services to promote better care. This paper explores the factors contributing to differences in crude mortality rate of Haiti and USA as well on reasons why the crude mortality rate is lower in latter.
Statistics indicates that in 2000, crude mortality rate from all causes for Haiti was 6.0 deaths per 1000 persons compared to the U.S. that recorded 10.4 deaths per 1000 persons. Various factors may be considered in assessing these differences in crude mortality rate., one of which is gender. Women are believed to live longer, 5-10 years longer than men do. Therefore, if the number of women is more than men in a country, then the rate or mortality is expected to be low. Another factor is the age of the population. A country with old population will record higher death rates compared to that with lower age population (Guang-zhen, 2010). The economic level of a country also determines the rate of crude mortality. In countries that have stable economies, the rate of mortality is low compared to those with unstable economies (Guang-zhen, 2010). This is because, established economies provides incentives and have easy accessibility to infrastructure to support better heath. Cultural beliefs also play a critical role in enhancing the quality of care and more so when it comes to the morbidity rates of a country. Some cultural practices and beliefs are outdated and impact negatively on the healthcare leading to more deaths.
In this context, therefore, one of the reasons that explain why the crude mortality rate is lower in Haiti than in the United States is the number of aging population. U.S. has a high number of aging population compared to Haiti, and this contributes to greater level in this discrepancy. Most of older people are vulnerable because of their age compared to young people that make a larger percentage of Haiti.
When epidemiologists measure disease frequency, they analyze the incidence and prevalence of a disease. Incidence is the number of new cases of a disease in a particular population during a specific time period. This measure is useful when public health officials and epidemiologists are looking at the first occurrence of a disease. It is also important when comparing populations to determine disease risk.
For each problem, answer the following questions:
Name the appropriate measure of disease frequency that should be used in each scenario and justify its use (why that particular measure is the appropriate one).
The percentage of elderly men who are diagnosed with prostate cancer by age 80.
The number of mothers who die during the first year after giving birth due to complications from the birthing process.
On the last day of the school year, the number of freshman college students who are at least 15 pounds heavier than when they started the school year.
Calculate the appropriate disease frequency rate. Show your work.
The cumulative incidence rate in a population of 100,000 people where 9 new cases of disease were reported within 1 year.
The prevalence of a chronic disease on November 1st where 9 initial cases were found in September with an additional 45 cases reported in October of a small city with a population of 75,000 people.
The relative risk of death from exposure A if the mortality rate in the exposed group is 60 deaths per 1000 person-years and the mortality rate in the unexposed group is 20 per 1000 person-years.
The prevalence of a health condition is the existing number of cases of that condition in the population. State whether the factors listed below are likely to increase or decrease the prevalence of a health condition and Explain your reasoning.
Improvements in diagnostic criteria
Shorter duration of a health condition
Decrease in the incidence of the health condition
Loss of healthy people from the population for other reasons.
SAMPLE ANSWER
Disease Frequency
The appropriate measure of disease frequency
Part 1: Percentage of elderly men: The apt measure is gender and age specific proportion of persons who are affected. Gender and Age is the appropriate measure since the problem is prostate cancer that develops only in males and the age that has been indicated in this specific case is 80 years.
Part 2: For the number of mothers who die in the initial year after they have given birth because of complications from the birthing process, the apt measure of disease frequency is Attributable Proportion amongst the women who are exposed. This is the apt measure given that the exposure in this case is women who are expectant who pass away in the first 12 months after procreating and they have developed problems as a result of the process of giving birth.
Part 3: The apt measure is Attributable Proportion amongst the total population. In this situation, the freshman students who increased weight within a time period of 12 months are taken out of total freshman college students. It is of note that the total number of freshman students at the college comprised the denominator.
Calculation of the appropriate rate of disease frequency
Part 1: Cumulative incidence rate within a population of 100,000 persons in which nine new cases of illness were reported in one year. Cumulative incidence is understood as a measure of the occurrence of new cases of the health condition within the population (Kleinbaum, 2013). Cumulative incidence rate (R) in this problem is the proportion between new cases of the disease of interest and the individuals who are at risk. The denominator refers to the size (N) of the population that is not affected, while the numerator is understood as the number of newly affected people (A).
R = New cases (A) ÷ People at risk (N)
Thus in this problem, the cumulative incidence rate will be (9 ÷ 100,000) x 100% = 0.009%
Part 2: Prevalence (P) basically signifies the proportion of a given population which has the illness of interest at a given time, for instance on a particular day. To estimate this value, the number of cases or of existing people who are affected (C), is divided by the total number people within the population (N).
Prevalence (P) = Cases (C) / Number of People (N)
In this situation, the Prevalence (P) of a chronic illness on 1st November is 9 cases of the month of September plus 45 cases reported in the month of October (C) divide by (/) total number of people (N) which is 75,000
P = ? C = 54, N = 75,000
P = (54 ÷ 75,000) x 100% = 0.072%
Part 3: the relative risk of death from exposure A
Relative Risk (RR) or Risk Ratio is understood as the ratio of the occurrence of the death or disease amongst the people who are exposed and the occurrence amongst those persons who are not exposed (Bonita, 2009).
RR = occurrence amongst those exposed ÷ occurrence amongst unexposed
In this situation, the occurrence is 20/1,000 amongst those unexposed and 60/1,000 amongst those exposed. RR is thus 60 ÷ 20 = 3. What this implies is that the risk of death in the exposed group is 3 times greater than in the unexposed group.
Prevalence of a health condition
Improvements in diagnostic criteria – likely to increase
When diagnostic criteria is improved, positive value will be increased. Therefore, diagnosis of the disease is carried out correctly and appropriate treatment is started. This will consequently lead to control of the health condition and in so doing decreases the number of cases as well as prevalence (Noordzij, 2010).
Shorter duration of a health condition – likely to decrease
It is possible to have shorter duration of a health condition in either of 2 instances. First is where recuperation is very fast and it is no longer a case; and secondly where the likelihood of death from the health condition is extremely high and those who are affected with the illness face the threat of dying. In either of these 2 cases, the prevalence would reduce considering that prevalence is basically the number of old and new cases that exist at a given instance.
Decrease in the incidence of the health condition – likely to decrease
If there is a decrease in incidence, there will also be a decrease in prevalence given that prevalence is the product of duration of the disease and incidence.
Loss of healthy people from the population for other reasons – likely to increase
This will certainly increase the prevalence of the disease since the loss of healthy persons basically means an increased proportion of persons who are at risk of getting the health condition. More number of persons who are at risk signifies that more persons are affected by the disease leading to a rise in the number of patients, thus increasing the prevalence of the health condition (Kleinbaum, 2013).
References
Bonita, R. (2009). Basic Epidemiology. Cambridge, MA: Penguin Publishers.
Kleinbaum, D. G. (2013). Measures of Disease Frequency. New York City, NY: Springer Publishers.
Noordzij, M. (2010). Measures of Disease Frequency: Prevalence and Incidence. National Center for Biotechnology Information.
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Exposing the Gaps—How Does the United States Compare in Key Determinants of Health?
When the health of a population is measured by various mortality indicators such as life expectancy, infant or child mortality, or the chances of surviving to retirement, surprising trends emerge. Health, as measured by longevity, appears to be declining in substantial segments of the U.S. population, especially for women (United Health Foundation, 2013). These findings receive little attention in most public health efforts or in the mainstream media, at least in the United States.
For this Assignment, you select health indicators used to measure the health of the U.S. population and contrast them to other countries around the world. You compare various determinants of health within different states in the United States as well as across continents.
To prepare for this Assignment, complete the readings and view the media in your Learning Resources. Install the free Gapminder Desktop tool and experiment plotting different health outcomes against various determinants already loaded along the two axes. Using the various health ranking resources provided, select two key health indicators for which the United States ranks lower than other nations.
Note: In grading every required Application Assignment, your Instructor uses an Application Assignment Rubric, located in the Course Information area. Review this rubric prior to completing your assignment.
The Assignment (3–4 pages):
Provide a brief description of the two health indicators you selected, citing specific sources.
Explain how the U.S. ranks on these indicators compared to other nations.
Explain two factors that might influence those rankings and the relative standing of the U.S. compared to the other nations.
Determine which two states rank the best and which two states rank the worst for those indicators.
Describe factors you believe might contribute to those relative rankings among the states.
Share any insights you gained or conclusions you drew as a result of making these comparisons.
Expand on your insights utilizing the Learning Resource
SAMPLE ANSWER
How U.S. Compares in Key Determinants of Health
The two health indicators selected are life expectancy and infant mortality rates. Life expectancy is understood as the expected number of years of life that is remaining at a particular age. Life expectancy is extensively utilized in measuring health even though it only takes into consideration the length of life of people in the country and not their quality of life (Kliff, 2013). Infant mortality rate (IMR) is basically the rate of deaths amongst children who are below the age of 1 year, for each 1,000 live births averaged over 3 years (Castillo, 2013).
IMR = (Number of child deaths in a year / No. of live births in the same year) x 1000.
Relative to other nations, America is ranked 26th in life expectancy. This is illustrated in the table below:
Table 1: Life expectancy in the U.S. compared to other countries (Kliff, 2013)
Rank
Country
Life Expectancy
1
Switzerland
82.8
2
Japan
82.7
3
Italy
82.7
4
Spain
82.4
5
Iceland
82.4
6
France
82.2
10
Norway
81.4
11
Netherlands
81.3
12
New Zealand
81.2
15
United Kingdom
81.1
17
Canada
81.0
18
Germany
80.8
23
Belgium
80.5
24
Slovenia
80.1
25
Denmark
79.9
26
United States
78.7
27
Chile
78.3
28
Czech Republic
78.0
The life expectancy for women in America is 80.7 and 75.6 for men (Castillo, 2013). Although the life expectancy in the United States is increasing, it is doing so a lot more slowly compared to other developed countries. Two factors that may influence the life expectancy rankings are violence and disease. In essence, life expectancy in the U.S is lowest amongst industrialized countries because of violence and disease. The violence is partly because of the widespread possession of guns as well as the practice of storing firearms in unlocked places at home (Castillo, 2013). Besides the impact of gun violence, people in the United States get involved in more accidents involving alcohol and consume the most calories among high-income nations. Moreover, heart disease, diabetes in addition to lung disease are more prevalent in the U.S. than in other developed countries (Castillo, 2013).
Figure 1: Infant Mortality Rates of U.S. compared to other high-income nations (Kliff, 2013)
In America, the infant mortality rate is more than 2 times that of peer nations such as Sweden and Japan (Kliff, 2013). Two factors that may influence those infant mortality rate rankings include poor nutrition of American babies compared to babies from other high-income countries, and inadequate nutrition/under nutrition of American babies compared to babies in other developed nations (Castillo, 2013).
Table 2: the two best and two worst states in the U.S. by infant mortality rates (Statistica, 2013)
Ranking
State
Deaths per 1,000 live births
States that rank the best
1
New Hampshire
4.42
2
Minnesota
4.55
States that rank the worst
49
Alabama
8.49
50
Mississippi
9.86
The above statistic indicates the infant mortality rates of the 2 best and 2 worst states in the United States as of the year 2012. The State of New Hampshire had the best rate which was 4.42 for every 1,000 live births prior to the age of 1 year, followed by Minnesota with 4.55. Alabama and Mississippi had the worst with 8.49 and 9.86 respectively (Statistica, 2013). Factors that may contribute to those relative rankings among the states include poor nutrition as well as under nutrition considering that in terms of child food insecurity rates, the state of Mississippi ranks at the bottom and neighboring Alabama is ranked 44th out of 50 states. Conversely, the top 2 states in terms of child food insecurity rates are New Hampshire and Minnesota (Ochs, 2014).
Table 3: U.S. states by life expectancy (Greenwood, 2014)
Ranking
State
Life Expectancy
The Best States
1
Hawaii
81.3
2
Minnesota
81.1
Worst States
50
West Virginia
75.4
51
Mississippi
75.0
At 81.3 years, the state of Hawaii has the longest life expectancy exceeding the national average by more than 2 years. It is followed by Minnesota with a life expectancy at birth of 81.1. Out of all the U.S. territories, Mississippi ranks with the shortest life expectancy having 75.0 (Greenwood, 2014). The two main factors which essentially contribute to those ranking include diseases such as diabetes, as well as the quality of health care in the state, bearing that the state of Minnesota has more doctors per capita compared to West Virginia or Mississippi. Having more doctors per capita ensures the provision of adequate, and better quality health care for citizens of that state (Ochs, 2014).
In sum, America ranks poorly in terms of infant mortality rates as well as life expectancy compared to other developed countries. Two factors that may influence those infant mortality rate rankings include poor nutrition and inadequate nutrition. The factors that contribute to the life expectancy rankings are violence – gun violence in particular –, and disease particularly heart disease and lung disease. The southern states of West Virginia, Mississippi, and Alabama rank at the bottom in terms of life expectancy while Minnesota and Hawaii are at the top. In infant mortality, New Hampshire and Minnesota are at the top while Alabama and Mississippi are at the bottom.
References
Castillo, M. (2013). Report: U.S. Life Expectancy Lowest among Wealthy Nations due to Disease, Violence. CBSNews.
Greenwood, K. (2014). The 15 U.S. States with the Longest Life Expectancies. Boston, MA: CRC Press.
Value Chain Analysis
Consider the following scenario:
Miguel owns a Mexican restaurant. He has well-established relationships with local suppliers and has fresh produce delivered daily. Carefully trained cooks craft authentic Mexican food in state-of-the-art kitchen using a well-refined and systematic process. They interact seamlessly with fast, friendly wait staff who typically deliver food in fifteen minutes or less to hungry customers. Customers come in large numbers for good food at a good price. Miguel carefully tracks customer preferences to alter menus and offer specials.
Despite being a small business, Miguel has successfully coordinated various internal activities and established external relationships in ways that create value for his customers.
A well-functioning work team carefully assesses the strengths and weaknesses of each team member, assigning activities to leverage their individual strengths. However, team members also carefully coordinate tasks to ensure they combine their individual efforts in effective ways. Effective organizations do the same by carefully selecting a strategy that maximizes the strengths in performing various activities. They exploit relationships between internal activities to create a chain of activities that maximizes the value of their product or service for customers. Companies large and small can derive additional benefit from combining a strong internal value chain with those of external partners to establish a value system.
To prepare, select a company with which you are very familiar or for which you can easily obtain information. You may wish to use the organization you are thinking of proposing for the Sustainable Solutions Paper (SSP), which you will complete throughout the course. This would allow you to repurpose information from the Discussion for a portion of your SSP. If you wish to take advantage of this opportunity, please review the SSP template located in this week’s Learning Resources to ensure the organization you choose for this Discussion also satisfies the SSP requirements. Review this week’s Learning Resources, particularly Exhibit 1 in Porter and Millar’s article “How Information Gives You Competitive Advantage.” You can use this chart to guide your value chain analysis for this post.
Critique discussion #1’ analyses by identifying additional strengths and weaknesses of the analyses and offering suggestions for addressing those weaknesses.
•Offer insight into additional potential linkages among areas of the value chain in your colleagues’ organizations that they may have overlooked, and ask a question to expand their thinking on the subject.
•Offer additional insight into the potential strategic significance of the value chain in your colleagues’ organizations and ask a question to expand their thinking on the subject.
•Answer one of the questions posed by your colleagues in their posts.
Discussion #1
Peter Nanga,
Vimal Shah and his elder brother Tarun, in 1985 saw the potential value in all the goods that could be developed from cotton seeds. They started small by developing oil pressing factory where they extracted oil which they would use to produce edible oils and soap. They contracted farmers to grow the produce, cotton, sunflower and corn whose seeds were their main raw materials. As Senge (2010) explained that real innovation opportunities lies in the creation of new products that break away from the dependency on conventional oil and gas entirely. For Bidco it was to totally shift from relying on cotton for their cotton garments to edible oil manufacturing from crude palm oil. At this point, BIDCO which was previously a garment manufacturing factory shifted and became an edible oil and soap producing factory. This was a complete disruptive shift. They made their bar soap whiter and lighter and moved around the country in a van convincing farmers to stock their products and only pay after selling, Bidco has since moved from oil presses to edible oil refinery and imports its crude palm oil from Malaysia while bleaching earth and other raw material used in refinery are imported from china. They had recently acquired flagship brands from Unilever group both in edible oil and soaps after the latter could no longer be competitive In the market. The company has adopted the Japanese philosophy, Kaizen which is about continuous improvement in all areas. This has addressed the issue of wastages in the production and human resource management, procurement by adopting the best production practices and management.
Harvard Business Essentials described strategy as a deliberate search for a plan of action that will develop a business ‘s competitive advantage and compound it. By applying value chain analysis an organization is able to determine which activities within the chain gives the most value. These value generating activities results into creating competitive advantage for the firm. For the company that I have chosen Bidco, innovation in production, procurement, product differentiation and continuous research and development of new products and development of efficient distribution channels have been identified as value generating activities for the company. These three activities has set Bidco apart from its competitors. Two of its competitors are Kapa Oil Refineries and Pwani Oil Refineries.
Value chain analysis is the process by which activities within the chain are analyzed and value adding activities and those associated with core competencies and capabilities identified in order to focus on them and make them perform better than those of the competitors. Continuous improvement and innovations, efficient distribution channels across the Africa Continent and continuous research and development of new products has created value and competitive advantage for Bidco. Senge (2005) likened value chains to a glue that connects disparate businesses, locally, regionally or globally. In the case of BIDCO, its suppliers are part of that chain. They determine the cost, quality and reliability of the supply. BIDCO’s value chain has potential strategic significance. From the seed suppliers, logistics providers and finally processing the final products and distribution of the same, shareholder value continue to be created as it positively affects the larger value chain.
Question to further discussion:
Since value chain reach beyond the boundaries of individual businesses, in which areas would BIDCO collaborate with other organizations as it implements its sustainability strategy?
Reference
The Harvard Business Essentials: Strategy: create and implement the best strategy for your business HD30.28.H3785 2005.
Senge, P., Smith, B., Kruschwitz, N., Laur, J., & Schley, S. (2010). The Necessary Revolution: Working Together to Create a Sustainable World.
Critique discussion #2’ analyses by identifying additional strengths and weaknesses of the analyses and offering suggestions for addressing those weaknesses.
•Offer insight into additional potential linkages among areas of the value chain in your colleagues’ organizations that they may have overlooked, and ask a question to expand their thinking on the subject.
•Offer additional insight into the potential strategic significance of the value chain in your colleagues’ organizations and ask a question to expand their thinking on the subject.
•Answer one of the questions posed by your colleagues in their posts.
Discussion #2
Value Chain Analysis
According to Covell & Walker (2013), Nike is an athletic apparel and gear company based in the United States. Nike offers athletic shoes, clothes, and other accessories worn during sporting events. The US athletic footwear industry comprises companies that manufacture and sell athletic footwear, apparel, equipment and accessories. Nike has become one of the most recognizable companies in the entire world. Nike has had a monopoly in the athletic gear industry for many years. Putsis (2013) described Nike’s main competitors as Adidas and Under Armor. Nikes major buyers are teenagers who later switched to boots and leather gain strength over its competitor.
The value chain analysis is used to see what organization can do to create an advantage over its competition. According to Porter & Kramer (2011), value chain relates to the activities through which firms develops a competitive advantage and creates shareholder value. Michael Porter introduced a generic value chain model that comprises of a sequence of activities found to be common to a wide range of firms.
The value chain analysis divides a company’s activities into primary and support activities. Primary activities are those that involve creating a product and getting the product to market for purchase. Support activities provide the infrastructure that enables the primary activities to take place. The primary activities include procurement and inbound logistics, operations, outbound logistics, marketing and sales, and service. Support activities include research, technology, systems development, human resource management, and general administration (Magretta, 2012).
According to Lu, Sung, Wang, & Li (2012), the goal of the activities is to offer customers a level of value that exceeds the cost of the activities, thereby resulting in a profit margin. One linkage in the chain can affect any part of the chain. The firm will look at the activities that are most valuable and ones to improve to provide a competitive advantage over its competitors. Nike has a strong customer base and large distribution systems that produce many different products for the customers.
Information technology permeates the value chain. Information technology initially was used for accounting and record keeping purposes. Technology can affect competitive advantage by incrementally changing the activities themselves or by making possible new configurations of the value chain. Information technology has given businesses multiple ways to generate data as it performs its activities over multiple systems (Porter & Kramer (2011).
The value chain technology includes technologies in inbound logistics, operation, outbound logistics, marketing and sales, and service. Value chain activity often affects the cost or performance of one of the other activities. Technology helps in planning and collaboration, thereby improving the overall effectiveness of the process. Technology is used to track orders and delivery coordination, and monitors and coordinates shipment, ensuring delivery of the product to the consumer as scheduled. Technology improves the quality of the information, expedites transfer, and monitors the volume of transactions (Tsai, Raghu, & Shao, 2013).
Nike’s strengths include pride it takes in getting the top athletes to wear and sponsor their products. Famous athletes in basketball, football, soccer, and track wear Nike footwear and clothing. Consumers will remember the product based on the athlete and sport played by the athlete (Hall, 2013).
According to Covell (2013), the majority of Nike’s income comes from selling its product to retailers who in turn sell the product to the consumers. The market that Nike participates is very price sensitive. Many consumers try to find the lowest price when shopping for Nike products. Nike continues to receive negative publicity regarding poor working conditions for workers in their overseas factories. Workers are underage and paid way less than minimum wage. Nike must improve the firms weaknesses to stay ahead of its competition.
Questions:
Nike has dominated the athletic retail business in all categories. How can other companies such Adidas improve to compete with Nike?
Nike achieved a cost advantage by controlling the cost drivers out of its supply chain. What can other firms do to help improve their advantage?
References
Covell, D., & Walker, S. (2013). Managing sport organizations: Responsibility for performance. London, UK: Routledge.
Hall, R. (2013). Brilliant marketing: What the best marketers know, do and say. London, UK: Pearson UK.
!!!!! please answer discussion 1 & 2 Seperately !!!! also list two references for each.
SAMPLE ANSWER
Since value chain reach beyond the boundaries of individual businesses, in which areas would BIDCO collaborate with other organizations as it implements its sustainability strategy?
BIDCO should partner with research market companies such as Nielsen and IRI for research and development of the company. Although the company conducts basic research that benefits numerous customers, the primary goal should focus on applied research. Applied research looks at short-term programs such as successfully building new product lines. This proves to be the strength of these research firms in that this method of research is less costly than the basic research, and less dangerous due to the short-term nature. Moreover, research market companies such as Nielsen provide the needed information from the market and customers, which assist the management to avoid risk and invest in necessary places.
The firm should also have a good partnership with other companies that produce its raw materials, especially in near places to avoid excess production costs. These are inbound logistics that ensure there is a constant supply of raw materials to maintain the production. The company has been importing its crude oil from Malaysia, a situation that reveals there is little of its raw material in Africa. In this manner, the company should partner with some agricultural firms within its locality to produce the raw materials. When this is done, there will be an enormous reduction of production cost.
Lastly, just like other big companies, BIDCO should collaborate with big bodies that host global events. For example, Coca-Cola Company sponsors several events such as Big Brother Africa, world cup, and many others. It is time for the company to collaborate with bodies such as FIFA, WHO to sponsor some of the activities. Hall (2013) says that the only way to penetrate through this tough business competition, one has to locate the prominent customers.
References
Hall, R. (2013). Brilliant marketing: What the best marketers know, do and say. London, UK: Pearson UK.
Petkus, E. (2013). Value-Chain Dynamics of the West Point Foundry, 1817-1911: A Historical Case Analysis in Marketing. Marketing Education Review, 23(3), 275-280
Nike has dominated the athletic retail business in all categories. How can other companies such Adidas improve to compete with Nike?
Other companies such as Adidas should obtain many suppliers in the industry to neutralize the effect of Nike in the market. According to Aaker (2011), very little suppliers in the market make bargaining power non-existent. Rubber, leather, and cotton commodities should be abundant in the market with the brand name of other companies. The firms should also be able to switch between the available suppliers cheaply and quickly hence the suppliers will become dependent on the company for their survival.
The firm should put a lot of emphasis on the 4Ps, which are the product, price, promotion, and place. These are very vital components of dominating the market according to Aaker (2011). For a product, the companies should provide good quality and comfortable shoes and outfits that fit the players through research and development. For the price, Nikes competitors should have a pricing strategy for every group of consumer. The price of the items varies depending on the design and edition of the sports gears. For the place, they should open discount outlet stores in rural areas and retail shops where they are less known. Selling in different places will assist them to handle the different needs of the customers. For the promotion, they should not only cut the discounts but also participate in the sporting activities by rewarding and sponsoring those events.
Just like Nike, other companies should have both management and independent directors. The combination of the directors will benefit the companies in that there will be a presence of managers who are directly and indirectly involved with the company. The indirectly involved managers bring outside experiences that provide another frame of reference. The directly involved board is classified as an oversight board, engaging in active roles with strong regards to the management in point of strategy formulation. They also check market trends based on research work and development (Ahenkora, 2012)
Ahenkora, K. (2012). Qualitative Value Chain Analysis and Strategic Choices. International Journal Of Business Management & Economic Research, 3(1), 429-431
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For each source listed, you will begin with a summary of the information you found in that specific source. The summary section gives your reader an overview of the important information from that source. Remember that you are focusing on a source’s method and results, not paraphrasing the article’s argument or evidence.
The questions below can help you produce an appropriate, scholarly summary:
What is the topic of the source?
What actions did the author perform within the study and why?
What were the methods of the author?
What was the theoretical basis for the study?
What were the conclusions of the study?
Remember, a summary should be similar to an abstract of a source and written in past tense (e.g. “The authors found that…” or “The studies showed…”), but it should not be the source’s abstract. Each summary should be written in your own words
SAMPLE ANSWER
Forster, M., Grigsby, T. J., Unger, J. B., &Sussman, S. (2015). Associations between gun violence exposure, gang associations, and youth aggression: Implications for prevention and intervention programs. Journal of criminology, 2015.
Summary
Forster, Grigsby, Unger and Sussman (2015) conducted a study that investigated the link between gang association, exposure to neighborhood violence and social self control to incidences of aggression at school. The study collected data from minority youths from three Southeast Los Angeles schools. In the literature review, the authors show that aggression is a serious problem in schools. According to Forster et al (2015), over 600,000 teenagers reported assault related injuries annually, in addition, between 20 and 40 percent of school going students had experienced a bullying incident at school. The literature review also revealed that between 700,000 and 1,000,000 teenagers were members of gangs. Past studies have shown that exposure and association to gangs, affiliation with delinquent peers, and family processes are indicators of violence perpetration and victimization. To investigate the link between the variables, the study sampled 77 female and 87 male 7th and 8th graders in three South Los Angeles middle schools. Questionnaires were used to collect data on substance abuse, demographics, social self-control, and family and peer gang association, neighborhood violence and self-reported aggression. The study reported that teenagers with high levels of social self-control were less likely to be involved in past week aggressive episodes. Students with friends who were members of gangs reported 91 per cent higher incidents of aggressive episodes. For girls, aggression was 46 per cent higher if the family was affiliated to gangs. Exposure and fear of gun violence also increased the incidence of aggressive episodes by 26 per cent. According to the study, students were most likely to be involved in aggressive incidents if they were male, had friends associated with gangs, and had low levels of social self-control.
Critique
Forster, Grigsby, Unger and Sussman (2015) is useful study as it explores an area of research where there exist little empirical evidence to link the variables. It is worthwhile to note that the research provides an insightful background on the teenage and school violence. The author then seeks to investigate the factors that lead to high rates of aggression among teenagers and school going students. Unfortunately, the research only sampled 164 students which is a small sample to facilitate the generalization of the results of the study to the general population. In addition, the study was conducted in only three schools in the South Los Angeles area where gang violence and gun crime is common (Forster et al, 2015). It is obvious that teenage aggression in other areas may be driven by other factors apart from association with gangs and exposure to gun violence. However, the results than link social self-control to lower levels of self-reported aggression can be generalizable to other student populations. Using self-reported measures is also a major weakness of the study as the students may fail to report honestly on most of the data collected. Observation would have been a better option for collecting the data on past week aggression as opposed to self-reported measures of aggression. Using observation, the researcher would have been able to see and record incidents of aggression rather than hear about them from the participants. The study rightly concludes that school based interventions can be used to disrupt the development of aggressive behavior. School based programs can help indeed help in the development of social self-control which has an inverse relationship with the development of aggressive behavior.
Application
Forster et al (2015) is a very useful study in research on teenage violence, and associated the associated study areas. The study provides valuable statistics on the state of teenage violence indicating that more than 600,000 school age children report aggression related injuries every year. The study helps to illustrate that teenage violence is a serious problem affecting many school going children and it is an area that warrants further research. Most importantly, the research identifies some of the factors that are predictors of teenage violence perpetration or victimization. The study reveals that association with gangs and gang members is a contributing factor to aggressiveness among teenagers. Other impacts of gang association such as the tendency to use substances and other truant behaviors can also be investigated in future studies in the area. The study also reports an inverse relationship between social self-control and incidents of teenage aggression. Further studies also need to be conducted to establish whether self-control can decrease aggression among teenagers who associate with gangs, and have been exposed to gun violence. The study also indicates that self-reported measures of aggression were limitations of the study, and thus another method of data collection like observation can be used for future studies. The study design also provides a research model that can be expanded for future research in the area of teenage truancy and violence. The research sample for future research on the topic can be expanded to more schools from more heterogeneous school districts to ensure the results can be generalized. Therefore, Forster (2015) is an important research article that provides preliminary evidence linking association with gangs, social self control, and family association with gangs with teenage violence perpetuation. Most importantly, the study establishes several directions for future research in the area
References
Forster, M., Grigsby, T. J., Unger, J. B., & Sussman, S. (2015). Associations between gun violence exposure, gang associations, and youth aggression: Implications for prevention and intervention programs. Journal of criminology, 2015.
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ANALYSIS OF RESEARCH DATA
Analyzing Quantitative Data
Previously you discussed how data is collected. Now you will consider how the information gathered with data collected is analyzed.
How does the researcher go about organizing and looking at the data in order to understand what it means? In quantitative research this is accomplished through the use of statistics.
The methods for data analysis depend on the purpose and data collection methods. Most all studies will have descriptive statistics. These statistics describe the sample that was studied. They include data like the percent of men and women, the mean age of the sample, and any other demographic data collected.
The two other most common methods of data analysis are the paired t-test, which measures the differences in means between two groups, or the same group with a pretest and posttest; and the Pearson’s r which measures the relationships between two variables. Pearson’s r can also be used to identify relationships between demographic data and other variables.
Activities
REQUIRED ACTIVITIES
From your textbooks, read:
Introduction to Nursing Research Incorporating Evidence-Based Practice
• Chapter 12
• Chapter 13
Please look up and read the following articles before completing the critique of this paper
• Coughlan, M., Cronin, P., & Ryan, F. (2007). Step-by-step guide to critiquing research. Part 1: quantitative research. British Journal Of Nursin, (BJN), 16(11), 658–663.
• Giuliano, K., & Polanowicz, M. (2008). Interpretation and use of statistics in nursing research. AACN Advanced Critical Care, 19(2),211–222
• Ingham-Broomfield, R. (2008). A nurses’ guide to the critical reading of research. Australian Journal Of Advanced Nursing, 26(1), 102-109.
Please review the following websites.
Please visit the following sites to understand statistics and nursing research:
KuKanich, K. S., Kaur, R., Freeman, L., & Powell, D. A. (2013). Evaluation of a Hand Hygiene Campaign in Outpatient Health Care Clinics. AJNonline; 113(3).
Problem:
What is the problem the study was conducted to research?
Many research studies conducted earlier have tested the interventions for improving hand hygiene within teaching hospitals and clinics and the interventions were found to be successful. Nonetheless, moderately few research studies have actually tested such interventions within outpatient hospitals and clinics.
Why is the problem an important one for nursing to research?
The problem is an important for nursing to research primarily because it will help to improve adherence to hand hygiene practices of health care workers in outpatient settings.
Study Purpose
What is the purpose of the study?
The purpose of the research study is essentially to improve hand hygiene in 2 outpatient healthcare clinics by introducing an informational posters as well as a gel sanitizer (Kukanich et al., 2013).
Research Question
What is the main research question?
The researchers formulated 5 main/primary questions that were to be addressed in the study. These include the following:
Could an intervention campaign carried out in 2 outpatient healthcare clinics result in improved hand hygiene?
Are there any dissimilarities in the observed frequency of hand hygiene at baseline compared with that at 1 week and 1 month after introducing the intervention?
Are there any dissimilarities in the observed frequency of hand hygiene basing on the gender, profession, and timing (post-patient and pre-patient contact) of the worker?
Which tools of hand hygiene do healthcare staffs in these settings – outpatient settings – prefer?
Would the observed healthcare staffs later on report that both or either intervention tools were actually motivating and indeed influenced habits of hand hygiene?
Hypothesis/hypotheses
What is the study hypothesis? If it is not stated, what would you say the hypothesis is?
Interventional campaigns in the 2 outpatient health care clinics will lead to improved hand hygiene. The use of a multifaceted implementation approach that consists of a gel sanitizer and giving informational posters helps in achieving significant improvement in adherence to HH practices and practices within outpatient clinics.
Study Variables
INDEPENDENT
Define the meaning of the term “independent variable.”
Independent variables (IV) are those variables which are manipulated or varied by the researcher during the investigation. In essence, the IV is the presumed cause, it is the antecedent. In experiments, the IV is the one which is manipulated and controlled by the person doing the experiment. In non-experiment research in which there is no experimental manipulation, the IV is basically the variable that logically has some effect on the Dependent Variable (Hoe & Hoare, 2012).
Identify the independent variables in this study and provide a definition of the variable.
It is notable that 2 outpatient health care clinics were used in this research study. The 1st clinic was an outpatient oncology clinic, and the 2nd clinic was an outpatient gastrointestinal (GI) clinic. The IV in this study basically comprised the introduction of an informational poster and a gel sanitizer as an intervention.
How is the independent variable carried out in this study?
Gel sanitizer was included in this study in order to provide HCWs with an alternative to foam sanitizer and water and soap. The researcher’s created an informational poster in order to increase HCW’s awareness of HH, offer information regarding when HH has to be done, and encourage HCWs to take personal responsibility for decreasing the spread of infections which are associated with health care (Kukanich et al., 2013).
DEPENDENT
Define the meaning of the term “dependent variable.”
A Dependent Variable (DV) is understood as the response which is measured in an experiment. The DV is the presumed effect, it is the consequent. The Dependent Variable is not manipulated by the investigator, rather, it is the Dependent Variable which is measured or observed for variation as a presumed, supposed outcome of the variation in the Independent Variable (Venkatesh, Brown & Bala, 2013). The Dependent Variable is essentially the status of the outcome or the effect in which the investigator is interested. In essence, the DV is the variable that the researcher observes and is likely to change in response to the IV.
Identify the dependent variables in this study and provide a definition of the variable.
In this study, the DV is the adherence of health care workers – doctors, nurses, and other workers in the hospital setting – to hand hygiene practices and guidelines.
How is the dependent variable measured in this study?
The DV variable was measured by directly observing HCWs to measure HH opportunities as well as attempts at baseline, after the intervention, and in the course of the follow-up period. Direct observation by trained observers is essential in providing more precise, exact information as regards the preferences of a health care worker for hand hygiene tools. The investigators measured the number of HH attempts against the number of HH opportunities. The opportunities were monitored by direct observers who recorded the attempts. HH opportunities were defined as the opportunities which occurred instantaneously prior to, and after a HCW directly contacts a patient. HH attempts are efforts to do HH in each opportunity (Kukanich et al., 2013).
Conceptual Model/Theoretical FRAMEWORK –
Is the framework explicitly expressed or must the reviewer extract the framework from implicit statements in the literature review? JUSTIFY your response!
In this research study, the conceptual model/theoretical framework is not explicitly expressed. The reviewer has to extract the framework from implicit statements in the literature review. This is because it is not overtly or clearly stated by the authors anywhere in the article and to know it; the reviewer must read through the statements contained in the literature review.
Is the framework based on scientific, substantive, or tentative theory?
The theoretical framework in the article is based on tentative theory; the researchers built tentative theory basing on certain propositions.
Does the framework identify, define, and describe relationships among the concepts of interest? Provide examples and rationale for your response.
Yes, the framework identifies, defines and describes relationships amongst the concepts of interest. For instance, the researchers have pointed out that an earlier hospital-wide study included the promotion of alcohol-based sanitizers, which led to increased usage of these hand sanitizers that resulted in improved adherence to HH guidelines. Simply put, there was a relationship between the promotion of alcohol-based sanitizers and improved adherence to HH guidelines; the more it was promoted, the more the HCWs in that hospital used it. Another example is the relationship between alcohol-based sanitizers, soap and water, and bacteria. When properly used, studied have demonstrated that alcohol-based sanitizers are more effective in removing some bacteria relative to water and soap (Kukanich et al., 2013).
How is the framework related to the body of knowledge in nursing?
The framework is related to the body of knowledge of nursing in that it helps in understanding how exposure of HCWs in busy outpatient healthcare settings to interventional tools could result in improvement of adherence to HH guidelines. It also helps to understand how gel sanitizers or informational posters help to improve adherence.
Review of the Related Literature
Are the articles relevant with previous studies and theories described?
Yes, the articles are relevant with previous studies and theories described. This because the articles are largely about adherence of HCWs to HH guidelines, which are in line with the previous theories and studies described which are also about the same thing – adherence of HCWs to guidelines of hand hygiene.
Are the references current? Identify the number of sources within past 10 years and the number of sources within past five years.
A total of 28 references were used by the researchers in this study. Most of them are relevant since out of the 28, 18 of them are from past the 10 years – dated 2004 up to present year –, and 5 are from the last 5 years – 2009 up to present year.
Describe the current knowledge about the research problem.
The practice of hand hygiene (HH) by healthcare workers (HCWs) including nurses and physicians using either water and soap or an alcohol-based hand sanitizer, is regarded as the most effective and significant method utilized to prevent healthcare-associated infections. Earlier studies have clearly shown that hand hygiene helps to reduce the rates of healthcare-related infections, adhering to the guidelines of hand hygiene is low amongst HCWs. In order to improve the adherence to HH guidelines and sustain such improvement in the long-term, it is important to recognize and address barriers. The main barriers basically include: a perception that HH interferes with patient-worker relationships; skin irritation; poor habits that were learned early in life; time constraints; poor access to HH materials; time constraints; forgetfulness; as well as lack of knowledge of HH guidelines (Huis et al., 2013).
Cleaning hands using an alcohol-based sanitizer usually takes less amount of time compared with washing with the use of water and soap. In addition, when utilized properly, it has been demonstrated that alcohol-based sanitizers are more effective compared to water and soap in eliminating some bacteria. It is on account of this that the World Health Organization (WHO) and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) actually recommend the utilization of alcohol-based sanitizers or hand rubs for clinical healthcare contexts. Nonetheless, washing hands using water and soap is still the favored way when hands are noticeably dirty. It is also the preferred method whenever one suspects contact with some infectious agents, for instance norovirus and Clostridium agents, considering that these organisms are very much resistant to killing with the use of alcohol (Boudjema et al., 2014).
Individual HCWs generally have dissimilar preferences of HH products and they can be affected to some extent by dissimilar barriers and motivators to HH. Santos (2013) noted that it has been shown by earlier studies that the use of more than one method is necessary in order to attain improved HH practices and sustain them over the long-term. In essence, such campaigns typically comprise the promotion of alcohol-based hand sanitizers. Even though evidence is lacking showing that educational materials alone for instance posters are actually effective at altering behavior of HCWs to adhere to HH guidelines, those which employ messages framed in terms of possible gains instead of losses and which entreat the HCW’s sense of responsibility for the health of the patient might be of benefit in combination with other vital strategies.
Specify the gap in the literature that justifies the need for the research.
There is little or very limited knowledge about the adherence of HCWs in busy outpatient settings to hand hygiene guidelines. There is also gap in knowledge regarding the effectiveness of using gel sanitizers and informational posters in the overall HH performance of HCWs within outpatient clinics. This study was aimed at addressing this gap in existing knowledge.
Many research studies have tested interventions that can be applied to improve HH in teaching hospitals and it was found that they were actually successful. Nonetheless, fairly few studies have tested these sorts of intervention within outpatient clinics. Mensah (2005) in their study which they carried out in outpatient clinics in Britain observed that baseline HH adherence was 18 percent. In a different research study carried out in an outpatient clinic in Israel, Cohen (2002) observed the behavior of doctors and sampled their hands for bacteria, although there was no intervention that was introduced. Observance to HH was low at just 31 percent. It was also observed that 69 percent of the doctors had Stapholococcus aureus in their hands. Some of the reasons that doctors cite for not adhering to HH guidelines include the absence of hygiene facilities, lack of awareness, too much workloads, as well as negative reactions to disinfectants (KuKanich et al., 2013).
Study METHODOLOGY
NAME the specific quantitative methodology of the study.
Observation is the specific quantitative methodology that was applied by the researchers. At times one cannot control a situation, and conducting an experiment is typically not feasible. Nonetheless, it might be probable to observe what goes on.
Provide a clear description/definition of this methodology (in your own words); use an article or your text to support the definition and provide a citation.
Quantitative observation is basically an observation that could be measured in numbers for instance length, volume, and acceleration. In essence, quantitative observations are usually made using instruments (Lubbe & Roets, 2014). They are observations observed of data in numbers; objects are counted or measured and are commonly with numbers.
Why was the choice of this methodology appropriate for this study? JUSTIFY your response.
The choice of observation quantitative methodology is appropriate for this study since the researchers has to collect data through observations. They needed to observe the subjects/participants in order to monitor the HH opportunities and to record the HH attempts of the HCWs in the 2 clinics.
Sample and Setting
Identify inclusion and exclusion sample criteria.
The inclusion criteria included the following: (i) the participant had to be a health care worker; (ii) the participant had to be working at either GI clinic or at the oncology clinic; (iii) the subject had to be a nurse or a physician; and (iv) the subject has to be aware of hand hygiene practices. The exclusion criteria: (i) the individual not being a health worker; (ii) the participant not working at either GI clinic or at the oncology clinic; (iii) the individual not being either a nurse or a physician.
Indicate the method used to obtain the sample. Provide a definition of the method and discuss why it was an appropriate choice for this study
The sampling method utilized by the researchers in this study is purposive sampling. Purposive sampling is essentially a sampling method in which the researcher samples with a purpose in mind. The researcher would typically have 1 or more precise groups that he/she is seeking. Purposive sampling is essentially a kind of non-probability sampling wherein some elements of population do not have any chance of selection, or in which the probability of selection cannot be established accurately (Yarcheski & Mahon, 2013).
Purposive sampling method was appropriate in this research study since the researchers started with a purpose in mind; they wanted a certain predefined group – health care workers in busy outpatient clinics. As such, they only had to sample individuals who are health care workers working in outpatient clinics.
State the sample size. Indicate if a power analysis was conducted to determine the sample size.
This study included a sample size of 88 participants: 41 HCWs at the GI clinic and 47 HCWs at the oncology clinic. Power analysis was not performed to determine the size of the sample.
Identify the SPECIFIC characteristics (demographics) of the sample.
The demographic in this study is defined in terms of gender. Survey was conducted in which 56 HCWs were sent questionnaire survey: 15 from the GI clinic and 41 from the oncology clinic. Of the 56 respondents, 30 were females while 26 were male.
Identify the sample mortality (or attrition) number and percentage.
Sample attrition or mortality is understood as the number of individuals who drop out of the research study in the course of the study. Initially, 88 health care workers were mailed questionnaire survey and only 56 of them returned the survey. As such, the attrition is 32. This is equal to 36.36%.
Indicate the type of consent obtained and institutional review board approval.
Getting consent for the participation of participants in any research study is of major importance. The main types of consent include proxy, post-hoc, implied/implicit, and explicit/express/informed. Implied/implicit consent was obtained from the participants of this research study given that the consent was not obtained through formal ways, for instance verbal or written approval (Schneider, Nicholas & Kurrus, 2013). The participants completed questionnaire forms and this implied their consent to take part. Approval was obtained from the administration of the two clinics.
Identify the study setting and indicate if it is appropriate for the study purpose. JUSTIFY your response!
The research study was conducted in 2 outpatient clinics. This setting is appropriate for the purpose of the study since the researchers wanted to improve HH in the 2 outpatient health care clinics by way of introducing an informational poster and a gel sanitizer.
Identification and Control of Extraneous Variables
Define extraneous variables
Extraneous variables are basically understood as undesirable and unwanted variables which influence the relationship between the variables being examined by the investigator. Extraneous variables influence an experiment’s results, although they are not the variables of interest (Hoe & Hoare, 2012).
What are the extraneous variables in this study? In what way(s) were appropriate measures used to control for the influence of the extraneous variables? Describe fully. If not addressed, explain how you know this and identify the extraneous variables you would note.
In this research study, the extraneous variables include gender, age, background and mood of the participant. It is notable that during the research study, female HCWs were more consistent in HH compared to male HCWs. The influence of extraneous variables was controlled by using almost the same number of male and female participants in the study, and ensuring that they all have the almost the same background regarding knowledge of hand hygiene practices.
Study Instruments/Tools
Identify the instruments used in the research
Survey was the instrument used.
FOR EACH INSTRUMENT: Instrument #1; Name of Instrument: Discuss how the instrument was developed or purpose of use. Cite the source for the background information about the instrument.
Survey was the instrument utilized by the researchers. A survey was mailed by the researchers to the nurse managers at the 2 clinics, and was circulated to 41 HCWs at the GI clinic and to 47 HCWs at the oncology clinic, 3 months following the final day of the follow-up observations. The researchers carried out the survey in order to evaluate the HCWs’ opinions of HH at their respective clinics, as well as their preferred tools of HH – gel sanitizer, foam sanitizer, or water and soap (Kukanich et al., 2013). Surveys are a descriptive, non-experimental method of research and they are particularly valuable whenever the investigator wants to gather data on phenomenon which cannot be observed directly, for instance opinions and perspectives of participants (Hoe & Hoare, 2012).
Identify the type of measurement strategy (e.g., Likert scale, visual analog scale, physiological Measure, questionnaire, observation, or interview).
Questionnaire, observation and Likert scale were used. Observation was measurement strategy applied. Interventional observation was used as the participants were directly observed to monitor HH opportunities and record HH attempts. Questionnaire was used after the observation. A 5-item Likert scale that ranged from strongly agree to strongly disagree was utilized for questions about the motivational effectiveness of each of the intervention tools.
Identify the level of measurement (nominal, ordinal, interval/ratio) achieved by the measurement strategy. Provide a definition of the level of measurement(s) you identified and justify WHY you believe the instruments represent this level of measurement.
The measurement strategy achieved ratio. In ratio measurement, a meaningful absolute zero is always there. This implies that the researcher can construct a meaningful ratio using a ratio variable (Yarcheski & Mahon, 2013). The instruments represent ratio level of measurement because in the survey conducted in this study, there could be zero HCWs who believe that HH campaign has improved their HH practices.
Report the reliability of the instrument from previous studies and the current study.
He instrument is consistent. The information collected by the survey is consistent.
Report the validity of the instrument from previous studies and the current study.
The instrument is accurate and it serves the function that it was intended to serve, and always gives information that is correct.
Data Collection Methods
Detail how the data were collected.
Data were collected through observation and the use of survey. Through observation, the investigators observed the subjects/participants in order to monitor the HH opportunities and to record the HH attempts of the HCWs in the 2 clinics. One month following the final day of interventional observations, the researchers conducted follow-up direct observations of HH on 3 non-consecutive days. Survey was carried out to evaluate the HCWs’ opinions of HH at their respective clinics, as well as their preferred tools of HH – gel sanitizer, foam sanitizer, or water and soap
In what way(s) is the data collection procedures appropriate for this study?
Observation is appropriate since they needed to observe the subjects/participants in order to monitor the HH opportunities and to record the HH attempts of the HCWs in the 2 clinics. Survey is appropriate since it was useful in assessing the HCWs’ sentiments of HH at their respective clinics, as well as their preferred tools of HH.
In what way were appropriate steps taken to protect the rights of the subjects?
The subjects were respected and treated as autonomous agents and those who wanted to drop out were allowed to do so. In essence, there right to end participation in the research study at any time was respected. They were also given access to information as regards the research study.
Statistical Analysis Procedures
Identify the statistical procedures used in the study: Statistical Procedure #1 (Name and definition):
Chi-square: Pearson’s x2 was used. Pearson’s chi-squared is essentially a statistical test which is used in sets of categorical data in evaluating how probable it is that any observed dissimilarity between the sets came about by chance (Yarcheski & Mahon, 2013). In essence, it is utilized in determining whether there is any sort of relationship between 2 categorical variables.
Pearson’s Chi-square is the only statistical procedure that was used.
How was it used in the study?
Pearson’s x2 analyses were utilized in comparing the frequency of HH attempts throughout the 3 observation periods and in comparing the post-contact and pre-contact frequency of such attempts. It is notable that every calculation had 1 degree of freedom, and a P value equal to or less than 0.05, that is, <= 0.05, was seen as significant (Kukanich et al., 2013). Only descriptive statistics were utilized in assessing the frequency of HH by HCW’s profession and gender considering that there were considerably less observations of male HCW’s to allow comparative analyses. In addition, descriptive statistics were utilized to compare the HH tools utilized, given that product availability did vary in the course of the study.
Complete the table below with the analysis techniques conducted in the study:
Statistical Procedure
Statistical Findings
Significance (provide a narrative description of the significance as well as the actual statistical values
Chi-square
Before intervention: Rate of attempt at GI clinic = 21%
Rate of attempt at oncology clinic = 11%
After intervention:
Rate of attempt at GI clinic = 54%
Rate of attempt at oncology clinic = 36%
In both the GI and oncology clinics, the overall rates of HH attempts to HH opportunities were 21% and 11% respectively.
This improved greatly after the intervention was introduced to 54% and 36% respectively, and remained improved at the 1-month follow-up period 51% and 32% respectively.
What are the specific results of the study? Provide DEPTH and write IN YOUR OWN WORDS.
In the GI clinic, at baseline, the overall rate of HH attempt to opportunities was 21%, it was 11% for the oncology clinic, and after the intervention, these improved substantially to 54% for the GI clinic and 36% for the oncology clinic. Half of those who were surveyed agreed or strongly agreed that the HH campaign had actually increased the awareness of HH. On the whole, 34 percent of the subjects agreed that HH campaign had improved their HH practices. Moreover, half of the participants agreed or strongly agreed that introducing gel hand sanitizer served as an effectual motivator and resulted in improved frequency of HH. HH performance was consistently better after contact with patient compared to before contact with patient.
Strengths\Limitations
What are two major strengths of the scientific merit of this study? (This does not refer to findings of the study)
It was easier to answer the research questions using a small sample size than a large one
The study was carried out on a new area which has not been examined previously thus it greatly contributes to the body of existing knowledge.
What are two major limitations of the scientific merit of this study?
The possibility of the Hawthorne effect – some HCWs may have noticed that they are being observed, and hence they cleaned their hands more regularly.
Only 56 subjects actually took part in this study which is a very small figure hence the findings cannot be generalized to the entire population of outpatient HCWs. It is difficult to generalize findings from a small size (Hackshaw, 2010).
How did the researcher generalize the findings?
The researchers generalized the findings by stating that the HH campaign demonstrated that providing informational posters and introducing a gel sanitizer could bring about short-term improvements in HH performance within outpatient clinics.
What did the researchers say the relevance of the data was? Describe the researchers’ interpretation of the findings.
They stated that the results of the research show that the HH frequency by HCWs in busy outpatient healthcare settings is low. They added that short-term exposure to interventional tools could result in modest improvement still seen at 1-month follow-up. Moreover, pre-testing interventions within a particular healthcare setting and utilizing a multi-faceted implementation approach may help in achieving the highest improvements. Reinforcing and/or establishing a clinic-wide expectation that HCWs would follow HH recommendations is also an important measure which might further encourage HH adherence.
Where in nursing can the results of the data be applied?
In busy outpatient settings
What suggestions for further study were identified?
The researchers recommend that in future, after the collection of baseline data, researchers should seek the ongoing involvement and support of influential HCWs who may also act as role models for other HCWs.
Is the description of the study sufficiently clear for replication? Explain and Justify your response
Yes, the description of the data is adequately clear for replication. This is because the instruments used were valid and reliable. They were accurate and measured what they were designed to measure.
REFLECTION
Reflect upon your newly developed understanding of quantitative research. What has this experience critiquing a quantitative research study meant to you and how will this make a difference in your overall practice of nursing? Please provide depth and be sure you respond to the question. This is a subjective response and must be at least 2 full paragraphs. Please respond in reference to understanding quantitative methodology and not the specific focus of the research study.
What has the experience of reading and critiquing a quantitative study meant to you?
It has meant much to me as it has helped to gain essential knowledge and skill that I can effectively utilize to conduct a useful quantitative research. It has helped me to identify the weaknesses such as small sample size that I need to avoid in order to ensure that the findings which I obtain can be generalized. It has also offered me a better, clear understanding of Chi-square/Pearson’s X2 and how I can use this statistical procedure in quantitative data analysis.
How will understanding and using quantitative research findings make a difference in your practice of nursing?
The understanding of using these quantitative research findings will make a difference in my practice of nursing in several ways. It will allow me to effectively apply the findings in my workplace, for instance by adhering to HH guidelines. Moreover, it will help me to focusing on doing what is right in order to improve outcomes.
References
Boudjema, S. S., Dufour, J. C., Aladro, A. S., Desquerres, I. I., & Brouqui, P. P. (2014). MediHandTrace®: a tool for measuring and understanding hand hygiene adherence. Clinical Microbiology & Infection, 20(1), 22-28. doi:10.1111/1469-0691.12471
Cohen, H. A .(2002). Handwashing patterns in two dermatology clinics. Dermatology;205(4):358-61.
Hackshaw, A. (2010). Small Studies: Strengths and Weaknesses. European Respiratory Journal; 32(5):1141-1143.
Hoe, J., & Hoare, Z. (2012). Understanding quantitative research: part 1. Nursing Standard, 27(15-17), 52-57.
Huis, A., Hulscher, M., Adang, E., Grol, R., van Achterberg, T., & Schoonhoven, L. (2013). Cost-effectiveness of a team and leaders-directed strategy to improve nurses’ adherence to hand hygiene guidelines: a cluster randomised trial. International Journal Of Nursing Studies, 50(4), 518-526. doi:10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2012.11.016
KuKanich, K. S., Kaur, R., Freeman, L., & Powell, D. A. (2013). Evaluation of a Hand Hygiene Campaign in Outpatient Health Care Clinics. AJNonline; 113(3).
Lubbe, J., & Roets, L. (2014). Nurses’ Scope of Practice and the Implication for Quality Nursing Care. Journal Of Nursing Scholarship, 46(1), 58-64. doi:10.1111/jnu.12058
Mensah E. (2005). Hand hygiene in routine glaucoma clinics. Br J Ophthalmol;89(11):1541-2.
Santos, L., Souza Dias, M., Borrasca, V., Cavassin, L., Deso di Lobo, R., Bozza Schwenck, R., & … Bierrenbach, A. (2013). Improving hand hygiene adherence in an endoscopy unit. Endoscopy, 45(6), 421-425. doi:10.1055/s-0032-1326284
Schneider, B., Nicholas, J., & Kurrus, J. E. (2013). Comparison of Methodologie Quality and Study/Report Characteristics Between Quantitative Clinical Nursing and Nursing Education Research Articles. Nursing Education Perspectives, 34(5), 292-297.
Yarcheski, A., & Mahon, N. E. (2013). Characteristics of Quantitative Nursing Research from 1990 to 2010. Journal Of Nursing Scholarship, 45(4), 405-411. doi:10.1111/jnu.12038
We can write this or a similar paper for you! Simply fill the order form!
For this assignment, you will write a paper about at least four social and demographic changes you identified in your research in the studies for this unit. Make sure you:
• Describe each change.
• Explain how each change will impact the human resources role as a strategic employee relations partner and its practices for the next 5–10 years.
• Identify and explain at least three HR practices for managing the changes that will promote positive employer-employee relationships.
• Organize research and data in a coherent manner to support your position and influence others.
• Include a reference page, and format your references using APA (6th edition) guidelines.
• Use at least three academic references, in addition to the Web sites used for the demographic data.
* 4 pages
SAMPLE ANSWER
Diversity and Inclusion
Diversity and inclusion has emerged as subjects of discussion in the ever changing world. Diversity, in broader terms, refers to any particular dimension that is used to distinguish one group of people from the other (Gerber & Linda, 2010). It calls on people to respect and appreciate the differences in terms of gender, ethnicity, age, education, nation of origin, religion, sexual orientation, and disability among others. There is however more to do with diversity than just mere description as it appears. It is the tendency of different individuals to carry along with them diverse perspectives, life styles, work experience and culture (Gerber & Linda, 2010). As a basis and a driver of invention, diversity could be viewed as an incredible idea in the world of business and the society at large. Inclusion on the other hand, is used to refer to the state of being respected, supported and valued. It is all about giving attention to the needs and preference of every person and making sure that every individual is provided with the right conditions to attain is or her potential (Gerber & Linda, 2010). Inclusion is always reflected in the relationships, culture and practices of an organization which has the sense of supporting a diverse workforce. Logically speaking, diversity means the mix and inclusion is the means of making the mix to collectively work well.
Diversity is something that is real in the society today given that immigration now happens anywhere in the world. Taking the United States, which is a typically diverse country as an example, there are African-Americans, Hispanics, Chinese, Native Americans, and many others all of whom have different ways of life religion included. The whole of this population, however diverse they may be, there has to be inclusion so that each of them has to play a role in spinning the wheel towards development.
These different groups of people with wide range of cultural identities have to find a way of understanding and coping up with the different cultures that they interact with. The most prominent social challenge in this case therefore is how to cope up with the different cultures within the society.
Fostering epistemological inclusiveness and diversity in the workplace has occupied the center stage of the priorities set aside by Human resource development professionals. Any multinational institutions like international schools and companies have to embrace this particular matter of concern (Klerck, 2009). As had been stated earlier on in this paper, different groups of people from different cultural and ethnic groups tend to find themselves in the same environment at the same time. Employment and education lead the table in bringing people of such kind together.
Social change is manifested in the revolution of norms (Gerber &Linda, 2010). This is evident today especial in the multicultural nations, US being one of them. Gender roles have increasingly overlapped. To this day, women are seen to perform duties which, in the previous years were viewed as solely left for men. People migrate from one country to the other to seek better employment opportunities. What is evident in the modern society is improved mobility, increased flexibility, increased connectedness and better freedom.
The world is swiftly and steadily being initiated into a society of diversity. This diversity is indeed impelling the very fundamental part of different societies and the culture of such societies. The social trends are increasingly being viewed, not as a likely danger, but as a prospect to expand the worldview, share experiences and then initiate better tactics and inventive ideas to solve world problems and live together as one.
As a matter of fact, diversity will continue to thrive in the major institutions in every corner of the world. This is because globalization is taking place day by day and this is drawing people from all walks of life. Africans, Americans, Asians and Europeans are consistently brought together and each one of them comes in with their own culture and this, they try to impose on others. Some may reject such practices others may embrace them. This implies that in some way, diversity will be reduced later on in the centuries to come. In this way the world will move towards being integrated into one cultural institution. This is practically proven by interracial marriage that has been currently observed, a practice that never existed in the past.
As is the case in several countries, the population of the United States is steadily graying. The elderly population has been on the rise and is projected to even further grow in the near future. Statistics show that by 1950, only 8 percent of the total US population was age 65 and above. The same age group had risen to 12 percent by the year 2005 and this is expected to hit 23 percent by the year 2080. In fact the percentage of the elderly population is projected to double the current population in a century to come. Contrastingly, the population of the working-age is expected to shrink from 60 percent as it stood in 2005 to about 54 percent by 2080. These are the expected demographic changes in the US. To support this, the following table was obtained from the Board of Trustees (2006).
Year
Population (thousands)
Percentage
65 or older
All ages
Under 20
20-64
65 or older
1950
160118
54466
92841
12811
8
1970
214765
80684
113158
20923
10
1990
260458
75060
153368
32029
12
2005
302323
83963
181457
36902
12
Projected
2020
339269
87547
198213
53510
16
2040
376856
92268
207416
77172
20
2060
402,079
96760
218777
86543
22
2080
428,214
101,159
230,137
96,918
23
Table 1: U.S. population, by age, selected years 1950–2080
Researches that have independently been done have indicated that if the current population trends continue in The US, then the immigrant population risk overtaking the original population (Toossi, 2012; Schwatka, Butler & Rosecrance, 2012). The population growth of this country depend on immigrates rather than bath rates. In fact it is expected that there will reach a point when the number of immigrants will exceed the number of births annually. This is seen to be possible because of inclusion in every sector in The US economy. As was noted earlier on, the population is first aging and this implies that the working population is also in the reducing end. Labor will have to be imported (Toossi, 2012; Schwatka, Butler & Rosecrance, 2012). The purchasing power of this country will have to be boosted. In this way diversity and inclusion will be seen to have changed the demography of this particular country.
References
Board of Trustees of the Federal Old-Age and Survivors Insurance and Disability Insurance Trust Funds. 2006. 2006 Annual Report of the Board of Trustees of the Federal Old-Age and Survivors Insurance and Disability Insurance Trust Funds. Washington, DC. Retrieved from http://www.ssa.gov/oact/tr/tr06/index.html
Gerber, J. J. and Linda, M. M., (2010). Sociology. Toronto: Pearson Canada.
Klerck, G. (2009). Industrial relations and human resource management: A critical approach. London: Routledge.
Schwatka, N.V., Butler, L. M. and Rosecrance, J. R., (2012).An aging workforce and injury in the construction industry. Epidemiologic Reviews 34, 156–167.
Toossi, M., (2012). Labor force projections to 2020: A more slowly growing workforce. Monthly Labor Review 135 (1), 43–64.
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Write a paper (1,250-1,750 words) describing the approach to care of cancer. In addition, include the following in your paper:
1. Describe the diagnosis and staging of cancer.
2. Describe at least three complications of cancer, the side effects of treatment, and methods to lessen physical and psychological effects.
3. Prepare this assignment according to the APA guidelines found in the APA Style Guide, located in the Student Success Center. An abstract is not required.
This assignment uses a grading rubric. Instructors will be using the rubric to grade the assignment; therefore, students should review the rubric prior to beginning the assignment to become familiar with the assignment criteria and expectations for successful completion of the assignment.
SAMPLE ANSWER
Integrated approach to care
Cancer could be complex and difficult, and it typically necessitates the involvement of several specialists in an integrated or integrative approach to care. If one chooses a care center that provides multidisciplinary care, then the individual will be able to receive a uniquely effective and convenient approach to cancer treatment. When all the cancer specialists meet within a single place, more options for cancer treatment are likely to be discussed (American Cancer Society, 2014). Moreover, differences of opinion could be resolved at that moment, and the patient gets a treatment program which is more comprehensive that focuses on a physical treatment plan, as well as social and emotional needs of the patient. With an integrated approach, the patient will be an active member of the team and gets to listen to the discussions, ask any questions, and voice his or her concerns. The team will guide the patient in understanding his/her options, although the patient remains the final and very well-informed decision-maker (American Cancer Society, 2014).
Diagnosis and staging of cancer
Diagnosis: a medical history particularly the history of symptoms, and physical examination are the initial steps in cancer diagnosis. Usually, the doctor would order several tests, many of which would be determined by the kind of cancer, as well as where the cancer is thought to be situated in, or on the body of the patient. Additionally, physicians would order electrolyte levels, a complete blood count, in addition to other blood studies which might provide more information, for instance a prostate specific antigen test might guide the physician to carry out more tests like prostate biopsy (American Cancer Society, 2014). Imaging studies are usually utilized in helping the doctor detect any abnormalities within the body that might actually be cancer. Ultrasound, MRI and CT scans, and X-rays are the common tools employed in examining the patient’s body. Other tests like endoscopy could allow visualizations of tissues within the intestinal tract, bronchi or throat that might be cancerous. Radionuclide scanning is commonly utilized in areas which cannot be visualized properly, for instance some lymph nodes or inside bones. The test will involve IV injection or ingestion of a weakly radioactive substance which could be concentrated and detected in the tissue which is abnormal (American Cancer Society, 2014).
Staging of cancer is understood as the process used by the physician to find out how much cancer there is within the body of a person, and where it is situated. It is, in essence, how the physician learns the stage of an individual’s cancer. Staging information is used by physicians in planning treatment and to help in predicting an individual’s prognosis or outlook (American Cancer Society, 2014). It is of note that cancers that have similar stage typically have the same outlooks and are usually treated the same way. The stage of cancer is also a way that physicians use in describing the degree of the cancer whenever they converse with one another regarding a person’s cancer.
Staging is of major importance given that it tells the specialist the best possible treatments that the cancer patient actually needs. For instance, the treatment for early stage cancer of the breast might be radiation and surgery, whilst a more advanced cancer of the breast might also necessitate treatment with chemotherapy (American Cancer Society, 2014). Moreover, specialists also utilize the stage to help in predicting the course that a given cancer is likely to take. When staging cancer, the specialist looks for the primary cancer, which is the original tumor, in addition to other tumors. The doctor looks at the number, size, as well as locations of any tumors to find out if the cancer has actually extended far away. The physician also looks at the nearby lymph nodes to see if the cancer has spread into them (American Cancer Society, 2014).
Complications of cancer
Depending on the health of the individual as well as the stage of the tumor, complications of cancer could be life-changing, inconvenient, painful and even deadly. Amongst the most common complications of cancer include fatigue, metastasis, sleep disorders, pain and depression. (i) Emotional and mental complications of cancer: generally, patients with cancer have the risk of developing mood disorders such as major depression and anxiety. A lot of cancer patients experience grief, sadness, as well as anxiety in response to the diagnosis and treatment of the disease. Whenever these feelings interfere with the capacity to lead a productive life or to undergo treatment, nevertheless, the cancer patient might have developed a mood disorder which calls for professional treatment (American Cancer Society, 2014).
(ii) Physical complications of cancer: the main physical complication is pain. As a tumor is growing, it could extend into the nearby tissues or exert pressure on a surrounding nerve, which makes the patient to feel pain. The pain falls into 3 key types: neuropathic pain – this is pain as a result of injury to the central nervous system; somatic pain – pain that affects the particular area of the skin, bone or muscle; and visceral pain – pain as a result of damaged organ tissue (American Cancer Society, 2014). The other physical complications associated with cancer are as follows: vomiting and nausea; hypercalcemia, which is high amount of calcium within the blood; malignant pleural effusion, which is the accumulation within the lung cavity that makes breathing to be difficult. Lymphedema, which is the swelling as a result of damage to lymph nodes; sexual issues for instance vaginal dryness and erectile dysfunction; as well as pruritus, which is a sensation of itchiness.
Side effects of treatment
Radiation therapy and chemotherapy cause several side effects, considering that chemotherapy medications are very strong. The main side effects include Pain: this could be as a result of certain treatments for instance surgery. Vomiting and nausea: these are amongst the most dreaded side effects of cancer treatments. Fatigue: this is a distressing and common side effect of cancer and its treatment (American Cancer Society, 2014). Other treatment side effects include anemia and bleeding problems, confusion and memory problems, diarrhea and constipation, lymphedema, skin changes, hot flashes and night sweats, tiredness as well as hair thinning and hair loss. Other side effects include anxiety, reactivity to unpleasant stimuli, tension, depression, confusion, and hostility.
Methods to lessen physical and psychological effects
Patients with cancer who experience overwhelming feelings of despair, worthlessness, anxiety, hopelessness or sadness need to talk with a physician regarding the symptoms as well as possible treatment of these complications. In essence, psychological effects could be lessened through relaxation therapy, which eases symptoms of anxiety. Relaxation techniques which are known to ease the psychological side effects include mental imagery, hypnosis, as well as progressive muscle relaxation. They help in reducing tension, anxiety and depression (American Cancer Society, 2014). Fatigue can be lessened by establishing a sleep pattern, developing a routine for going to sleep, trying to those avoid activities which makes him/her most fatigued, and beginning an endurable everyday exercise regimen to decrease fatigue and improve sleep. To reduce physical effects, there are medications that the patient can take. There are drugs to reduce or totally eliminate the pain, which can also be lessened through massage that soothes the body
I need to have this as one of the references: Leinbach, T. R., & Capineri, C. (2007). Globalized freight transport: Intermodality, e-commerce, logistics and sustainability. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar.
SAMPLE ANSWER
Introduction
The European Union is primarily made up of twenty-eight countries which are located in Europe and mostly cooperate on political, environmental and economic matters. These countries have formed the EU as custom union which formulates policies and rules that establish competition rules that are required for effective functioning of their own internal market and also policies that govern the union members while dealing with other non-member countries in the global market. North America is largely dominated by the US and Canada. The Europeans and Americans cooperate and share common values related to economic, cultural, social and political ties. These ties are mostly reflected closely on transatlantic relations.
To assess and also develop the transatlantic cooperation between the Americas and the European Union, frequent presidential summits are regularly organized to facilitate mutual agreements on controversial issues.
The establishment and the emerging issues on global production network led to social integration on the international scene on matters touching on information, communication and transportation innovations which finally resulted on global expansion of trade and other economic activities. (Hesse & Rodrigue, 2004)
Freight transportation especially cross-border freight transportation is considered in the Americas as a high GHG (Green House Gas) emitting industry. The American system puts a lot of emphasis on subsidies regulation and regulated emission pricing that controls the GHG transmission from rail and truck transportation systems.
Protection of the environment is a major concern of the American transport integration. The impact of transportation on climate change has prompted several studies that have recommended the harmonization and adoption of renewable energy and other environment protection standards in the transportation industry.
Transportation is currently the second largest consumer of energy in the US while in Canada it’s the greatest. Transportation energy efficiency is a major concern for the national government as well as for the national climate change regulatory authorities.
Globalization of the manufacturing industry and logistics in the US has transformed the supply chain management (SCM) into a more comprehensive and complex framework that have eliminated inventories and instead integrated supply chain management systems. The expansion of GPN has been largely based on logistics. (Leinbach & Capineri, 2007)
In EU countries, Freight transport logistics is comparable to the North American policies on the need for improved efficiency on the general transport system through logistics which targets more environmentally friendly, efficient and safer energy consumption levels. Globalization has created new challenges for the European Union. The fast growth in the economy has also led to the growth in the transport system that has also resulted in congestion, pollution, noise and accidents. Transport is largely dependent on fossil fuels. The EU has established European loading standards in an effort to mitigate the effects of transportation on the environment and also to maintain a sustainable mobility.
The climate change has compelled the EU and the North Americans to seek alternative energy sources for transportation. Biofuels and gas remain the most recommended alternatives currently feasible as they do not attract any technological conversions. However Biofuels are not far much better than fossil fuels hence gas is the most recommended of the two alternatives.
In June 2005, the EU – US summit launched the transatlantic economic integration to spur growth and cooperation in both organizations by maximizing their economic potentials. The other policies are the OAA (Open Aviation Area) created in 2003 and it seeks to provide legal basis for transatlantic air services and Galileo that was established in 2004 and its aim is to regulate the global positioning systems in transportation networks.
Future research is needed on the effect of the threat of terrorism and its impact on the transportation system both in EU and America. The US and the EU have cooperated before on controlling the impact of terrorism on international trade but more research is needed on how to tackle and eradicate the threat posed.
The most interesting part of the cooperation is that there is no doubt that the transportation systems contribute to most of the environment hazards globally and both unions are still having a dialogue on how to implement the right measures to tackle the effects on climate change. (FHWA, 2005) The efforts to minimize and reduce the effects on the environment from the transportation systems are not satisfactory.
References
FHWA, Office of Freight Management and Operations (2005): Freight Facts and Figures 2005, p. 9. Washington D.C.: FHWA.
Hesse, M. and J-P Rodrigue (2004) “The Transport Geography of Logistics and Freight Distribution”, Journal of Transport Geography, Vol.12, No. 3, pp. 171-184.
Developments from the Renaissance to the Enlightenment
Developments from the Renaissance to the Enlightenment
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ESSAY TASK:
Briefly outline the developments from the Renaissance to the Enlightenment, as given in course notes. Summarise the main points that Kant made in his essay “What is Enlightenment?” How did Hamann criticise Kant? Do you think Hamann’s criticism is fair? Briefly justify your answer.
Reading:
*Notes on the Renaissance and the Enlightenment
*“What is Enlightenment?” by I. Kant
*Criticism of Kant
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SAMPLE ANSWER
Developments from the Renaissance to the Enlightenment
The beginning of the Renaissance period dates to the 14th century in Florence Italy as an attempt to return to the ancient world when Rome dominated. Among the greatest developments during this period was the architecture that was artistic and full of architectural wonders predominantly in Rome. The emergence of among the greatest artists that the world has known occurred during this period such as Michel Angelo, Raphael, and Leonardo da Vinci (Evans & Marr, 2006). The perception or art during this period changed especially relating to the way the human body was artistically depicted. The human body was pictured as being flattering and in a more positive view and its beauty emphasized compared to the medieval times. Due to the Ancient Greek and Roman sculptures influence, the human body’s nudity was depicted in a positive note in art (Belshek, 2006). This beautiful and noble depiction of the human body led to the development of the humanism movement. Humanists believed that humans were special and at the centre of everything. They believed humans were in charge and responsible for their destiny (West, 2010).
Plato, a celebrated scientist and thinker at the time who was also a humanist believed and emphasized on the power of human reasoning and believed that humans, using their reasoning abilities could unveil critical truths. This is different from the medieval people who emphasized the importance of faith and acquiring knowledge from the Bible (West, 2010). The belief in human reasoning resulted into the scientific revolution during this period. With the emergence of Thomas Aquinas’ book Summa Theologica and the increased confidence of the human abilities people changed their perception about the once infallible ideas of Aristotle. They conducted scientific observations, investigations, and experiments, and experimental methods were developed by Galileo Galilei and Isaac Newton developed the laws of motion and gravity that are used up to date (Fitzpatrick, 2004).
A strong belief in the human abilities and power of reasoning persisted and grew, and it spread from the scholars to the larger society hence the period of enlightenment. During this period, there was a strong belief that human beings using their reasoning powers could understand the universe, nature, and human nature (Fleischacker, 2013). There was increasing application of science and reasoning (the optimistic idea) that resulted to a better understanding of the universe with the most important development being the compilation of the encyclopedia mostly done by Denis Diderot (Zafirovski, 2010).
Main Points that Kant Made in His Essay
According to Kant, a person becomes enlightened when he/she grows out of an immaturity that is usually self-imposed. Immaturity according to him is the inability of an individual to use his/her understanding without being guided by another person. For Kant, immaturity is self-imposed due to the fear of using one’s understanding without being helped by someone else (Goldman, 2011). Laziness and being cowardly maintain immaturity and due to such qualities other people become guardians or authority figures on certain people. These authority figures warn the subjects of the dangers that exist if they do not seek their help and tell the people below them that achieving maturity is dangerous and difficult hence frighten and deter people from pursuing maturity. He laments that often, people find it difficult to free themselves from immaturity and become content with this state. He argues that rules, regulations, and formulas keep people stuck in the state of immaturity, and a person who attempts to go against the rules would be walking towards maturity as he/she is not accustomed to such free movement (Morgan, 2002).
According to Kant, very few people have managed to come out of the state of immaturity and they have done this through the cultivation of their minds. For him, freedom (to use reason publicly) is the only remedy for enlightenment that is the use of reason by a scholar before the literate world. It is only the public use of freedom that can generate enlightenment since private reason is often restricted to the point where it does not hamper the process of enlightenment (Tampio, 2012). Therefore, freedom is required for enlightenment and people should express their thoughts freely. Through the spread of information and ideas people can become their own guardians as they will possess the components required to be a guardian. By allowing the freedom to think, ideas can be spread that will push others to think for themselves (Tampio, 2012).
Criticism of Kant
According to Hamann by arguing that people should develop freedom of thought Kant was at the same interfering with the freedom of people to think by influencing their thought process. Hamann argues that in some instances people may not want to think for themselves and hence accept the rules and regulation set by the guardians and the authority out of choice (Beech, 2010). Hamann feels that by Kant arguing that people should freely and publicly use their ability to he is limiting the people’s choice to do what they want that is follow rules. Therefore, Kant was objecting the use of the Aristocratic bible and other books as rules for living and thinking. However, he was at the same time setting himself up in the position of this books by interfering with the people’s thought process and restrict them to his idea hence maintenance of immaturity (Goldman, 2011).
Hamann’s criticism is not fair because from Kant’s argument; he did not tell people to follow his thought process, but encouraged them to use their freedom of thinking and their reasoning ability. Therefore, for example, if someone chose to follow the rules that exist, let that person follow them after critically thinking about the rules and not just blindly. Kant encourages people to think before making a choice to do something not restricts people (Beech, 2010)
References
Beech, T. J. (2010). Hamann’s Prophetic Mission: A Genetic Study of Three Late Works Against the Enlightenment. London, United Kingdom: MHRA.
Evans, R. J., & Marr, A. (Eds.). (2006). Curiosity and Wonder from the Renaissance to the Enlightenment. Burlington, VT, United States of America: Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.
Fitzpatrick, M. (Ed.). (2004). Enlightenment World. New York, NY, United States of America: Psychology Press.
Fleischacker, S. (2013). What is Enlightenment? Abingdon, Oxon, United States of America: Routledge.
Goldman, A. (2011). Kant and the Subject of Critique: On the Regulative Role of the Psychological Idea. Bloomington, Indiana, United States of America: Indiana University Press.
Morgan, D. (2002). Kant Trouble: Obscurities of the Enlightened. New York, NY, United States of America: Routledge.
Tampio, N. (2012). Kantian Courage:Advancing the Enlightenment in Contemporary Political Theory: Advancing the Enlightenment in Contemporary Political Theory.United States of America: Fordham Univ Press.
West, D. (2010). Continental Philosophy: An Introduction (2nd ed.). Malden, MA, United States of America: Polity.
Zafirovski, M. (2010). The Enlightenment and Its Effects on Modern Society. Denton, Texas, United States of America: Springer Science & Business Media.
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