My subject is not Economics!
I have not found Leadership foundations as a subject
SAMPLE ANSWER
Introduction
A non-profit organization, usually abbreviated as NPO, is an organization that uses excess revenue with an intention of achieving its goals instead of distributing the revenues to other organizations as profits or even dividends. Despite the fact that the non-profit organizations are allowed to generate excess revenues, they are obliged to be retained by the organization for self-preservation, expansion or even plans. The NPOs have their leaders or controlling members who are also called the board members who encounter several issues or problems in their leadership. This article critically analyses a real-world leadership problem by expounding on the issues that leaders or the management face in nonprofit organizations. Aside from that, it further explains the skills that the nonprofit sector requires of its managers and leaders for the success of their organization. This is a strategic means of solving the real world leadership problem in the nonprofit through expounding on the roles and the responsibilities of the board members.
Leadership Problem in Non-Profits
Non-profit organizations face challenges, which are believed to involve the need for an improved execution in their areas of fundamental concern. These areas are the mission focus, board governance, succession planning, fundraising, and development and more so, the performance measurement (Leadership groups support area non-profits, 2013). Usually, the nonprofits that lose their way have these issues at the root of the problem, all of which revolve around the problem of leadership foundation.
The mission focus matters the most (Wells, 2012). For the profit corporations, leaders have the ability to assert with ease that they have a mission to maximize the shareholder value. This is not the case with the leaders for the non-profit organizations. The non-profit leaders lack that inherent purpose in clarity. They, thus, experience a mission creep, which remains the greatest threat to them. This issue is mainly caused due to the lack of the leadership foundation in the non-profit sectors, however, there still exists countless of external and internal stakeholders, who can lead such an organization astray. For example, there exist many funders who exert subtle but fierce pressure to the non-profit organizations with a purpose of broadening their mission in order to accommodate a particular grant-making interest (Hamlin, Sawyer & Sage, 2011). However, there exists some extraordinary leaders in the non-profit sectors who have the ability to celebrate their accomplishments and at the same time, share their best practices with others. They find it right to say ‘No, thank you’ to those funders who grant to cause mission creep (Business Policy and Strategy Conference Paper Abstracts, 2003). They choose to do what is in the scope of their mission and not what the funders are telling them to do. That, however, may cost them a lot but the non-profit leaders who are smart understand the cost of saying yes to the funders. Mission creep has the ability to stretch the resources of the organization so thin in that it ends up losing the ability to pursue its core goals.
Mismanagement of resources is a particular problem with the non-profits organizations. This is because the employees do not account to anybody with a very direct stake in their non-profit sector. For example, an employee is able to start a new program without telling the management and the rest of the staff about the complete liabilities of the program started (Clark, 2012). Rather, the employee will be appreciated for improving the reputation of the organization, attracting more donors and above all making the other staff happy. Indirect liabilities, affect the financial sustainability of the NPO negatively making the organization to have financial problems unless very dire controls are instated.
A better board of leaders will make a better non-profit organization. Members of the board of a nonprofit organization are obliged to engage both directly and very deeply into the work of their organization. Failure to that, the board meeting will degenerate into the rubber stamp exercises that could end up depriving the non-profit leaders of a much needed strategic guidance. The board members on their part would feel that their time is not spent in the right way. For example, the leaders at the Mothers2Mothers, which is a Kravis Prize organization, take that lesson to heart. The board members, according to Andrew Stem who is the board chair, talk and argue a lot to an extent where the meeting could be exhausting (Osula, 2014). They attend meetings to guide the organization’s strategy and to make the critical decisions.
The composition of the board is an equally important matter. A board that is constituted of the diverse composition of professional backgrounds with different representatives from the private sector and various segments creates a rich and more so, ultimately very helpful discussions which further balances decision making in board meetings.
In leadership foundation, there must exist an intentional succession planning. In organizations, nothing succeeds like succession (Doh & Quigley, 2014). An intentional succession planning is important for any organization. More so, it is an absolute imperative to any social sector that is led by a dynamic and visionary founder. The founder transitions are burdened with different potential challenges. These challenges pivot around the primal and the life and death issues rather much more than on the institutional and the organizational ones. The personality traits that drive most founders, for example, an urge to get the apparent constraints, make it quite hard for them to see their mortality like something they are forced to plan for. Succession planning has no time and it is never too early to start it (Doh & Quigley, 2014). This is another issue in the leadership foundation mostly experienced by leaders in the non-profit sectors. The problems and issues experienced in leadership foundation have the ability to bring down an organization because without a strong leadership foundation, the organization will not be able to run well. It is quite a necessity that has been assumed with the non-profit sectors and they need to be addressed in a more professional way.
Informed Suggestions on How to Address the Problem
In order to have a good and strong leadership foundation, the non-profit organizations need to have a strong and innovative leadership and more especially during uncertain times. The main governance competencies in the non-profit sectors involve the board leadership, performance measurement, strategic stewardship, and the financial oversight (Harrison, Murray & Cornforth, 2013).
The world today experiences very challenging environment of business. The board members of the non-profit organizations are required to effectively coordinate several key functions of governance. These functions range from the broad vision of the mission of the organization so as to define the specific metrics of performance measurement. Governing for Non-profit Excellence is designed so as to help the individual members of the board to enhance the leadership and the stewardship that they deliver to their organizations (Hess & Bacigalupo, 2013).
The members of boards of the non-profit organizations are required to start off in the right way. This could be easily done with an orientation program that is supposed to introduce them to the basic duties, roles and the responsibilities to serve as a good non-profit board member. This could at the same time involve the special issues that specifically pertain to the mission of the non-profit organization (Athanasopoulou, 2012). Other than that, it could also involve the information on the governance policies, accountability practices and review and approve the performance and compensation of the executive director. The governance policies remind all the board members about their legal duties together with their fiduciary duties. An example of the accountability practices is the need to disclose the conflict of interest.
During the recruitment of the board members, it is quite necessary to consider using the board member agreement so as to ensure that all members are on the same page. The board members excluding none are ambassadors to the community and that advocates for the nonprofit’s mission. The non-profit sectors are obliged to stand right for their mission, which is a discussion guide to use in the board. The organization’s president, secretary, treasurer among others should ensure they get to know in detail what is needed of them for the specific roles that they will be playing as non-profit officers (Athanasopoulou, 2012).
The board members should be highly educated about the organization. This is offered mainly by the State Associations of the nonprofits in which they offer the brown-bag lunches, roundtables, in-person seminars on the topics of governance and webinars (Karakas & Sarigollu, 2013). The roles and the responsibilities of the board are also included in this. Aside from the State Associations, other community-based sources are also involved in the education. These include the community foundations, local volunteer centers and above all, the university or college management programs for the non-profits.
Solving the non-profits leadership problem on foundation could also involve a local option. This is an option to seek a probono consulting so as to engage a consultant who is an expert in management in the non-profit sectors. The purpose of involving an expert in the non-profit management is to make it possible for him to work directly with the members of the board.
Some organizations however may not be able to involve a consultant or even get someone to train the board members. This does not mean that the organization will have to carry on with its leadership issues and problems. This is because there is still a better option for this; the consideration of the free online training on the ‘board basics’ which is developed by the CompassPoint (Laying the Foundation for Future Leaders, 2014). This is a leading authority in the board governance issues and offers a great numerous publications as well as webinars, national leadership conferences and in-person seminars.
There should be a significant commitment to management and development of leadership for the non-profit sector organizations. The critical factor for every non-profit organization to have the ability to sustain its strength is being able to hone in during hiring, developing and retaining the pool of best talent so as to ensure that it has the ‘bench’; that is, the organization’s own generation of next leaders to have to move the organization forward.
The non-profit managers and leaders will definitely find themselves challenged to maintain the health of the organization together with the health of their careers if the organization will stay without a team of leadership where all the members are able to fully contribute to the organization. The non-profit sectors are required to attend to the issues of succession planning, human capital management and the allocation of resources to impact its management and the preparedness in leadership (McCleskey, 2014).
Conclusion
In conclusion, leaders at high levels in the non-profit sectors are seen as needing more of everything in the organization. The ethics, values, the board, and the committee development are among the most important competencies in an organization regardless of the level of leadership. The leadership foundation must involve all these, and it is mandatory to get to address the problems that leaders face for the organization to run smoothly. Leaders should examine the issues of critical concern to the board members by clarifying the organization’s mission and identifying who will lead it, assessing the organization’s objectives and plans strategically for the future, exploring the efficiencies that are related to mergers, revenues and alliances, creating value added leaderships in board processes and ensuring that the finances are compliant and sustainable.
References
Athanasopoulou, A. (2012). Managers’ Corporate Social Responsibility Perceptions and Attitudes across Different Organizational Contexts within the Non-Profit–For-Profit Organizational Continuum. Journal Of Change Management, 12(4), 467-494.
Blakemore, S. (2012). Experience is best foundation for careers in leadership. Nursing Management – UK, 19(5), 8-7.
Business Policy And Strategy Conference Paper Abstracts. (2003). Academy of Management Proceedings, 1-139.
Clark, W. (2012). Introducing Strategic Thinking into a Non-profit Organization to Develop Alternative Income Streams. Journal Of Practical Consulting, 4(1), 32-42.
Doh, J. P., & Quigley, N. R. (2014). Responsible Leadership And Stakeholder Management: Influence Pathways And Organizational Outcomes. Academy Of Management Perspectives, 28(3), 255-274.
Githens, R. P. (2009). Leadership and Power in Fostering a Collaborative Community in a Non-Profit Professional Organization. Systemic Practice & Action Research, 22(5), 413-429.
Hamlin, R. G., Sawyer, J., & Sage, L. (2011). Perceived managerial and leadership effectiveness in a non-profit organization: an exploratory and cross-sector comparative study. Human Resource Development International, 14(2), 217-234.
Harrison, Y., Murray, V., & Cornforth, C. (2013). Perceptions of Board Chair Leadership Effectiveness in Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Organizations. Voluntas: International Journal Of Voluntary & Nonprofit Organizations, 24(3), 688-712.
Hess, J. D., & Bacigalupo, A. C. (2013). Applying Emotional Intelligence Skills to Leadership and Decision Making in Non-Profit Organizations. Administrative Sciences (2076-3387), 3(4), 202-220.
Karakas, F., & Sarigollu, E. (2013). The Role of Leadership in Creating Virtuous and Compassionate Organizations: Narratives of Benevolent Leadership in an Anatolian Tiger. Journal Of Business Ethics, 113(4), 663-678.
Laying the Foundation for Future Leaders. (2014). Leadership Excellence, 31(9), 32-33.
Leadership groups support area non-profits. (2013). Toledo Business Journal, 29(11), 19.
McCleskey, J. A. (2014). Situational, Transformational, and Transactional Leadership and Leadership Development. Journal Of Business Studies Quarterly, 5(4), 117-130.
Metcalf, L., & Benn, S. (2013). Leadership for Sustainability: An Evolution of Leadership Ability. Journal Of Business Ethics, 112(3), 369-384.
Organization & Management Theory Conference Paper Abstracts. (2010). Academy of Management Annual Meeting Proceedings, 1-133.
Osula, B., & Ng, E. W. (2014). Toward a Collaborative, Transformative Model of Non-Profit Leadership: Some Conceptual Building Blocks. Administrative Sciences (2076-3387), 4(2), 87-104.
Pandit, A., & Jhamtani, A. (2011). Growing Leaders Grows Profits—A Case Study in Leadership Development. Vision (09722629), 15(2), 193-200.
African nations tend not to have lower health outcomes, experiencing epidemics of infectious and non-communicable diseases across the continent. There is substantial health inequality among and within many nations in Africa. Similar disparities in health also exist in Latin America. Cuba, Costa Rica, and Chile have health outcomes comparable to the United States, while Haiti’s health outcomes are comparable to the less healthy parts of Africa.
A variety of arguments can be made for the reasons why there is great health inequity in these regions. Some relate to the different colonial histories since health is transmitted inter-generationally. Colonization, neoliberal globalization, including free market, free trade, and the unrestricted flow of capital with little government influence, has resulted in large wealth inequalities. Some countries have cut their government spending on health programs, which has led to devastating health outcomes.
For this Discussion, examine countries and their health problems.
Select two countries with different per-capita income levels such that one could be classified as a “high income” nation and the other would not be classified in the same income category. Note: You may use The World Bank website in your Learning Resources to identify countries and their income levels.
By Day 4, post a brief summary comparing the two countries and their health problems. Also, compare how the economic level and income inequality in each country influenced other social determinants (social dynamics, the status of women, education, or violence/homicide, etc.) for each country. Then, explain the impact of the determinants on the health outcome in each country.
SAMPLE ANSWER
Week 11 GloDQ
Health outcomes in different countries varies due to various reasons such as policies, economic, social, cultural political, colonization, neoliberal globalization, including free trade free market, and the unrestricted flow of capital among many others. The paper compares two countries health problems and impacts of determinants on health outcomes.
USA and Kenya are example of two countries that have different health problems. USA is categorized as a developed country. The country has a well and organized health system. It is classified as high-income economy. The country has population of 316.1 million people with a GDP of 16.80 trillion (The World Bank, 2013). Therefore, the health outcomes in USA are at high level as evidenced with their child life expectancy of 79 years (The World Bank, 2013). On the other hand, Kenya is categorized as developing country with middle-income economy. The country has population of 44.35 million with a GDP of $ 44.10 billion. The poverty headcount ratio at national poverty level line is 45.9% (The World Bank, 2013). The country therefore experiences a lot of health problems relating to socioeconomic such as communicable diseases such as malaria, typhoid and child mortality rates. The life expectancy at birth is 61 years.
Economic level and income levels of these two countries influence other social determinants such as status of women, violence/homicide and education. In Kenya, the gender disparity has decreased with empowerment of women. Education is provided to all the gender. However many women and children are at higher risks of death due to lack of accessibility to better quality healthcare. Initiate such as ‘beyond zero campaigns’ aims at reversing the trend (UNAIDS, 2014). The rate of violence is also experienced in families. Situation in USA is different as rates of mortality among woman and children are lower because of better healthcare systems (Marotta, 2014). The education levels are also higher and women have equal status in society because of economic empowerment.
Determinants of health outcomes such as the level of income/wealth, the education level, the cultural ideologies impacts on these countries in different measure. In USA, for instance income levels have enabled accessibility to quality and affordable healthcare reducing the level of mortality. On contrary, in Kenya the level income has also affected the quality of healthcare (Mugo, 2012). People suffer from communicable diseases and face challanges accessing quality healthcare. Cultural practices as well impact on the quality of healthcare as higher people still use traditional medical practices.
UNAIDS. (2014). New ‘Beyond zero campaign’ to improve maternal and child helath outcomes in Kenya. Retrieved from: http://www.unaids.org/en/resources/presscentre/featurestories/2014/january/20140130beyondzer ocampaign/
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VCI/EIIison Equipment-Coordinated Global Sourcing Process across Continents
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VCI/EIIison Equipment-Coordinated Global Sourcing
Process across Continents
VCI/EIIison, which represents the consolidation of the heavy transportation equipment units of
two previously separate and regional companies, is facing worldwide pricing pressures from customers
and competitors. The ability to meet financial targets has presented a major challenge for this new
global company. With limited ability to raise product prices, the alternatives facing VCI/EIIison have
become managing material costs better or absorbing price increases through lower profit margins and
profitability. Given that direct materials represent over 70% of the company’s total costs, it becomes
easy to appreciate the impact that improved global sourcing efforts should have on profitability.
From the time VCI, a European company, assumed ownership of U.S.-based Ellison both companies have sought to leverage the commonality between them on a global basis. The company concluded early on that procurement offered excellent opportunities for global synergy across the two continents. Ellison Equipment, working with VCI, has implemented a multi-step global sourcing process designed to leverage the volumes available through the newly combined units. This case offers insight
into how two geographically and culturally diverse companies, brought together through acquisition, are attempting to gain synergy and efficiency through integrated global sourcing. The challenges facing this global effort include not only geographic separation, but also cultural, language, technical, and business practice differences.
Global Sourcing Process Overview The global process at this company features two teams, one
at Ellison Equipment and one at VCI, working concurrently on the same global project. While Ellison had experience using cost reduction teams, VCI had never used teams within their procurement or engineering areas. As part of this process teams are aligned on both sides of the ocean working jointly on a commodity category or project. The teams eventually work face-to-face as they progress through the process steps.
Each global sourcing project has an expected duration of six months (although the transition to a
new supplier can take much longer). After working with an external consultant to segment its primary
products into six commodity groups, VCI and Ellison jointly identified 27 project opportunities. This
process is designed to support nine projects at a time (each having a six-month duration) with three
iterations or waves. Each team pursues three categories of commodities (which may have subcategories or sub-commodities) simultaneously, so three teams in a wave pursue a total of nine projects.
VCI/EIIison has also decided to apply its global process to contracts that the sourcing teams
determine are regional rather than global (a region is defined as North America or Europe only). A
global supplier is one that can competitively supply a product or service to all of VCI/EIIison’s worldwide
production and assembly locations. To date a majority of contracts have been classified as regional.
This is not surprising given the fact that the major competitors in the heavy equipment industry operate
regionally, which the supply community is structured to support.
VCI/EIIison’s Global Sourcing Process With the help of an external consultant VCI/EIIison has
created a rigorous and thorough nine-step global strategy development and implementation process.
Steps 1-4 of this process involve strategy development, while Steps 5-8 involve strategy implementation.
Global sourcing project teams are responsible for the first four steps. Step 0 involves the executive
steering committee selecting nine global sourcing projects at a time (called a wave) and identifying the
cost savings expected from each project.
Perhaps the most important task associated with Step 1, which is project launch, is the
formation of the global sourcing teams. Team members are selected based on their familiarity with the commodity or items under review. Since there is usually only one engineer and buyer for the
commodity, these individuals become team members almost by default.
The team leader works with the team to develop time schedules, a list of deliverables, and
expected milestones within the six-month project window. During this part of the process the teams
begin to quantify what they are studying by collecting and validating data. Across each category there
may be four or five segments or sub-categories that require separate analysis. While each team decides
on the segmentation of a category, both teams assigned to the project must agree on the segmentation.
Even thought each project technically has two teams assigned (one at each company working
simultaneously), they are really one team looking at the same project. Teams can proceed to the next
process step without the explicit approval of the executive steering committee. However, teams are
required to publish progress updates weekly. A major responsibility of the business analyst (discussed
later) is to compile and provide performance updates to the executive steering committee.
Some managers consider Step 2, sourcing strategy development, to be the most interesting and
critical part of the global process. During this step the project teams identify potential worldwide
suppliers. One of the realizations when beginning this process was that supplier switching, including
switching from long-established suppliers, was likely to occur. This realization was based partly on the external consultant’s global sourcing experience. Supplier switching can be time-consuming and difficult as new supply chain relationships are established.
From the list of potential suppliers, the teams send Requests for Information (RFis), which they
can modify to meet the specific needs of their category or segment. The RFI is a generic supplier
questionnaire that introduces the global process and requests data about sales, production capacity,
quality certification (such as ISO 9000), familiarity with the equipment industry, and major customers. It
is not unusual to send 400-500 RFis during a project, depending on the complexity of the category and
segments the team is working.
The RFI is a first filter in the supplier selection process. During this step it is critical that
suppliers return a high percentage of the RFis, which are separated and reported by region of the world.
Of the 400-500 RFis forwarded to suppliers, a team may receive and analyze several hundred completed
RFis. The teams also conduct a detailed supply market analysis to develop a thorough understanding of the economics and dynamics of a particular market.
Step 2 is usually the first time that the two teams working on a global sourcing project meet face
to face. The European and U.S. teams meet physically to conduct face to face analysis of the RFis
returned by suppliers. It is each team’s responsibility to establish the criteria for determining which
suppliers will receive Requests for Proposals (RFPs). A key decision during Step 2 is whether a
procurement opportunity appears to be regional versus global. A lack of globally capable suppliers can
make a project a regional opportunity.
Step 2 requires a major effort on the part of engineering. Engineers on both sides will examine
drawings in an effort to commonize part specifications between locations. While a project team may conclude that a global supply source does not exist, there may be opportunities to commonize or standardize specifications across the two locations.
Step 3, requests for proposals, features the development, sending, and analysis of formal
proposals to the most promising suppliers identified in Step 2. The average number of proposals
forwarded to suppliers per project is 20-30. Suppliers typically require six weeks to analyze and return
the RFPs. The teams strive for a high percentage of returned proposals, similar to the RFis. Team
leaders, representing the project teams, report RFP progress to the executive steering committee at a
weekly meeting.
Teams are responsible for analyzing the returned supplier proposals. Like the RFis, teams can
set their own evaluation criteria and weights, but members must reach consensus in their choices. The
proposal allows suppliers to provide design suggestions.
The teams usually meet via video or audio conferencing to review the proposals. Engineers
again take a lead role in evaluating technical merits. Complex purchase requirements may require teams to meet face-to-face for a second time. Using standardized spreadsheet tools that are available
to all teams, each team analyzes its proposals and decides, based on the analysis, which suppliers will be invited to negotiations.
A negotiation workshop takes place at VCI’s European learning center during this step. This
session has several objectives-team members receive training in negotiation, the project teams
develop their negotiating strategy, and the teams select a negotiation leader. If a team determined that
a sourcing opportunity was regional, negotiation will occur separately by region. Teams select regional
negotiation leaders if the project is a regional opportunity or a single negotiator if the project is global.
The decision of who should be the negotiating leader is based on discussion and consensus rather than
voting. Of the first 27 projects, fully one-third of the negotiating leaders were selected from outside the
project teams.
Step 4 involves recommending a strategy and negotiating with selected suppliers. Project teams
make a recommendation to an executive committee, specifically the vice presidents of purchasing and
engineering from VCI and Ellison. The executive committee may ask questions but to date has not
overturned any team recommendations. Team recommendations include the selected supplier(s) with expected savings and timings identified. The teams also identify whether the suppliers are regional or global but do not recommend contract length.
In this step the negotiating team probes and discusses in-depth the proposals submitted by
suppliers. Suppliers can be disqualified if engineering determines the supplier cannot satisfy technical
requirements, or the team is not satisfied with the commercial issues.
All negotiation in Step 4 is conducted face to face with suppliers at VCI/EIIison sites. Half the
negotiations so far have occurred in the U.S. and half in Europe. Before suppliers arrive they receive
feedback concerning the competitiveness of their proposal, which they are allowed to revise before
negotiations commence. Suppliers may be excused if they are informed that they are not competitive and choose not to revise their proposal. Once the lead negotiator takes over, the team leader’s role
begins to diminish (unless the team leader is also the lead negotiator). The team leader usually remains
as part of the negotiating team.
Step 5, called supplier certification, features purchasing and engineering groups receiving the
team’s recommendation and preliminary terms of the negotiated agreement. At this time functional
directors will begin to budget expected savings from the proposed contract into their financial projections. Supplier site visits can occur during this step by representatives of the functional groups.
For example, engineering, procurement, and quality assurance may want to validate a number of topics
during this step. The time frame for this step varies from one month to over a year.
Step 6, finalizing the contract, involves crafting the final contract based on the outcome of the
negotiations. The negotiation leader remains with the process until the contract is complete. While the
legal department is also involved, a buyer writes the contract using an agreement template. Contracts
are typically three years in duration. Both sides of the ocean are involved in formalizing the contract if
the agreement is global rather than regional.
Global agreements differ from traditional contracts. They include productivity improvement
requirements to offset material increases. The agreements also encourage technical advancements by the supplier to further reduce material costs or enhance product performance. This process also
includes a formal process to manage improvements, whereas the process for previous or non-global
agreements has been informal. And, in a somewhat significant departure from previous contracting
practices, incentives such as 50/50 improvement sharing are starting to appear.
Step 7, sample testing and approval, assesses the samples provided by the selected supplier.
Production facilities go through a production readiness stage, initial sample inspection reports are
developed, parts are checked off of production tooling, and the negotiation leader develops a
production rollout plan with help from his or her counterpart on the other side of the ocean.
Step 8, the concluding step of a global project, is the production readiness stage. The selected supplier may send a day or weeks worth of supply to be used in actual production. Logistics becomes part of the implementation team if there is a switch from one supplier to another.
Organizational Enablers VCI/EIIison has put in place certain enablers that support global sourcing. This includes the formation of an executive steering committee, the use of global teams, formally selected team leaders, and the creation of a business analyst’s position to support the operational and analytical needs of the teams. An executive steering committee at each unit reviews and prioritizes projects for study.
A sourcing director at VCI and a counterpart at Ellison drive the process at both organizations. Working jointly, these executives recommend projects for study, solicit input from functional areas in terms of cost savings and quality improvement opportunities, develop a plan to pursue the project (including assembling a cross-functional team), track the status of each project through weekly progress updates, and manage the global process to ensure its continued success. The executive steering committee members conduct a video conferencing meeting each week for two hours. This meeting also involves team leaders for projects that are in process.
Cross-functional teams are an integral part of this process. Two teams, one from VCI and one
from Ellison, work simultaneously on the same sourcing opportunity, each with a formal team leader, two functional members (usually from engineering and purchasing), and a business analyst that supports both teams. Each project consists of seven combined positions across two teams. The team leader and business analyst are full-time assignments while the buyer and engineer provide a part-time commitment.
Teams are responsible only for the first four steps of the global sourcing process. The two teams usually come together physically two or three times over a project’s duration. Both sides agree, however, that face to face interaction is time consuming. At the conclusion of each project the teams are required to write a “white book” documenting the lessons learned from their experience.
With any team-based approach the role of the team leader is critical to success. Project leaders
are responsible for planning team meetings, which are held once or twice a week depending on the
phase of the project, and reporting project status to the executive steering committee. Planning includes setting the meeting agenda, ensuring the global process steps are followed, and working with team members to meet time lines and achieve project goals. The leader also communicates with each
member’s management when necessary to ensure commitment. Agreement is widespread that the
team leader is a critical part of the process, particularly when the leader must work with members to balance their priorities while still challenging the team to achieve demanding performance improvement targets.
Each set of teams that works on three projects simultaneously has a business analyst assigned to
support the effort. The time required for managing requests for information {RFis) and requests for
proposals {RFPs) across two continents is extensive. Vel/Ellison created a full-time business analyst
position to manage the required tasks when pursuing global agreement. Exhibit 1 outlines the key features of this position.
Exhibit 1
Positive and Negative Features Related to the Business Analyst Position
Positive Features Negative Features
Experience from the position builds Managing three projects expertise about the global sourcing simultaneously creates an intense process work pace Full-time commitment to the process helps the business analyst avoid other job distractions
Process has some inefficiencies (faxing,
handling reams of paper, some software inefficiencies), creating additional and perhaps unnecessary work burden
Team leader and business analyst are Long and stressful days can affect key “point people” to management morale and promote turnover and suppliers
Given the work required to manage Too many RFI suppliers pass to RFP RFis, RFPs, and negotiations, the global stage, creating intensive work sourcing process would not succeed requirements for the analyst without the analyst position and a strong analyst Business analyst position prepares Obtaining drawings for RFPs from individuals for future sourcing careers engineers is a time consuming process
The analyst is central to the success of the RFI and RFP process. Analysts compile and send RFI
and RFP packages to suppliers, track and report response rates, input RFI and RFP response information into a sourcing software system and database, and follow-up with suppliers who are late with their submission. The business analyst also answers any questions that suppliers have or forwards their inquiries to the appropriate procurement or engineering representative. The analyst also provides feedback to suppliers concerning the competitiveness of their initial quotation or proposal. Finally, analysts have responsibility for forwarding the project database to their counterpart team across the ocean on a regular basis. Team members are relieved of extensive analytic and clerical duties, which allows members to commit time to value-adding activities.
While management views the business analyst position as an ideal way for high-potential
individuals to gain exposure to purchasing and sourcing, there are some issues with this part of the
process. Managing three projects simultaneously creates an intense work pace that affects morale and
promotes turnover. Furthermore, one analyst maintained that too many RFPs are forwarded to
suppliers, resulting in an intensive work requirement. Obtaining the necessary drawings from
engineering is also a time consuming activity. Finally, the process to coordinate team activities between the U.S. and Europe presents some difficulties. The analyst must fax documents daily, manage reams of paper, and use software that was not compatible between the U.S. and European systems.
Global Sourcing Outcomes A number of themes emerge when managers describe the value of
taking an integrated approach to worldwide sourcing. Perhaps most importantly, global sourcing was
the first major integrative effort undertaken between VCI and Ellison. This process demonstrated that
the two organizations could work jointly to capture the benefits offered by taking a global rather than
regional perspective, although the company is somewhat disappointed by the number of opportunities that were determined to be regional rather than global. Second, this process demonstrated that material savings are available from a disciplined approach to worldwide sourcing. Contracts resulting from this process average over 10% in material price savings, which is not as high as the savings that Santek is realizing. Part of this is due to the fact that many of VCI/EIIison’s agreements are regional rather than global.
Global sourcing has also narrowed the differences between Ellison’s and VCI’s sourcing
practices. Ellison has historically been more relationship focused with suppliers and viewed negotiation as a means to build upon those relationships. VCI has shown a greater willingness to switch suppliers more frequently and faster due to cost and quality considerations. The global process has enabled the two companies to converge on a consistent sourcing approach that combines the best features of both sourcing philosophies.
A repeated sentiment among managers is that this nine-step process introduced a discipline to
sourcing at VCI/EIIison. Each sourcing project moves lock-step over a six-month period with weekly
reporting to an executive steering committee. Global sourcing teams must meet deadlines and
milestones, make sure information gets to suppliers, and thoroughly research the supply base before
negotiating and awarding contracts. The process has made everything “official” with suppliers, who
have taken VCI/EIIison’s global efforts seriously.
The process is not without less positive outcomes or observations. One issue concerns a lack of
knowledge between VCI and Ellison personnel about each other’s supply base. As a result, each side
during a project has had a natural tendency to favor its own suppliers. When the two project teams
work together face-to-face, they have to spend time sorting out who the best suppliers from each side
are globally. This “home market bias” has hindered the process to some degree. Global sourcing teams
have been forced to learn more about each other’s suppliers, which requires greater effort and an open
mind.
As expected, all 27 global project teams to date have not been equally effective. One team
leader argues that any differences in performance are due to the quality and effort of the team
members and leaders rather than project complexity. This highlights the need for careful member
evaluation and selection. Unfortunately, team leaders do not receive special training before they
assume that critical position. And, team members are usually selected because they are most familiar
with the item or category under study rather than their ability to be effective team members.
While external consultants played a critical and highly visible role in developing and using
VCI/EIIison’s global process, managers point out that the use of consultants caused some concern. For
example, consultants assumed the role of team leader with several early teams, raising questions
concerning who should lead the teams and their qualifications. The consultants often dictated what the RFPs should contain, which created some disagreement within project teams. The consulting group also insisted on top management presence at weekly meetings. While this demonstration of executive commitment was valuable for the first few months, later meetings became too detailed to warrant executive attendance. Finally, too much time was spent educating consultants about the heavy
equipment industry. There was some surprise initially at the lack of experience of the consultants sent to work with VCI/EIIison on a day-to-day basis.
Concluding Observations An issue that all companies should address is whether the supply base
that supports their industry has global capabilities. Most competitors in the heavy equipment industry
operate regionally, which the supply community is structured to support. The issue of a regional versus
global industry raises a critical question-is the heavy equipment industry, with its regional perspective
and different customer tastes and requirements, a true global industry? How much time should
VCI/EIIison spend searching for common interests, including in procurement and design, when perhaps
limited opportunities are available?
As VCI/EIIison completes the first major iteration of its global process (three waves of nine
projects each that addressed the entire product structure), some managers are openly concerned about losing the discipline associated with this process. When first introduced the global sourcing process was something new that received special attention from executive leadership and suppliers. Some managers have expressed a concern that internal participants and suppliers already perceive the process is “winding down” and that most of the available savings have been captured. Maintaining momentum rather than succumbing to complacency will likely require a group that is committed to driving this process forward. In all likelihood that group must be the executive steering committee that is responsible for directing VCI/EIIison’s global efforts.
Discussion Questions
3. The assessment of worldwide suppliers creates an extensive workload. Discuss how VCI/EIIison
supports the analysis requirements faced by each global sourcing team.
SAMPLE ANSWER
VCI/EIIison Equipment-Coordinated Global Sourcing Process across Continents
VCI/Ellison agrees with all the requirements that are supposed to be met by every global sourcing organization. Global sourcing is very essential in the current society since all businesses are coming together in order to have a mutual working relationship. This cooperation ensures that a lot of value is given at a very low cost.
Development and changes in how businesses are conducted is a must. Competition is so stiff, there are so many emerging competitors, organizations are coming up with very new ways of doing business, leaders are developing new rules to govern how they run their business and customers are demanding for value for their money. Consequently, this has pushed almost every company to make use of the little resources that they have to produce more. With global sourcing, most of these challenges are solved. Global sourcing will enable this two organizations get the right skills at the right time and at a reasonable amount of money. Maintaining and training a workforce is so expensive hence, many companies are unable to manage this. Furthermore, global sourcing will generate more savings for the two organizations which can eventually be used to support very valuable projects in the organization. Therefore, with globalization, VCI/EIIison organizations are in support of this initiative since it lowers any challenge that can arise within the organization. As a result of this initiative, these two organizations are assured of very high efficiency rate and initiate projects of great value which are also very profitable. In addition, global sourcing will enable the two organizations to have an advantage over their competitors. Furthermore, they will also improve on the quality of goods and services offered to the clients both nationally and internationally (Gong, 100-150).
Work cited
Gong, Y. (2013). Global operations strategy: Fundamentals and practice. Berlin: Springer.
We can write this or a similar paper for you! Simply fill the order form!
Personal Worldview and Research Mindset in Business
Personal Worldview and Research Mindset in Business
Order Instructions:
Personal Worldview and Research Mindset in Business ( my post !!!)
My worldview has been molded and expanded over the course of my lifetime by many different influences. My family, friends, coworkers, teachers, and even strangers have made impacts on my life that have in one way or another changed how I view society and the world around me. The three main components that help to form my worldview are Ethics, Human Nature, and God, because they molded my thoughts, experiences, education and lifetime decisions.
I feel the strongest aspect of my worldview is my great sense of ethics. They help to guide my actions and decisions on a daily basis. Ethics to me lay the foundations of a person’s character. My mom always said which I do believe, that a person with good character will by default have a strong set of moral values and their morals will help that person to make ethical choices in their lives. My moral values have been learned from many different influences throughout my lifetime. Moreover throughout it all, my philosophy still is “never give up” you can’t and won’t give up.
Over the course of my lifetime I have become very successful on influencing the behavior of others. With this being said, my worldview appears to be compatible with the advocacy and participatory worldview. A participatory/advocacy worldview holds that formal knowledge and creates a sense of intellectual weakness among ordinary people (i.e., those who have either chosen or been denied access to higher education), making them surrender to or look up to the formally educated for guidance to promote their lives.
References
Mayoux, L. (2005). Participatory action learning system (PALS): Impact assessment for civil society development and grassroots-based advocacy in Anandi, India. Journal of International Development, 17(2), 211-242. doi:10.1002/jid.1211
Question 1 (posted by colleague Simon)
Listening to Dr. Michael Patton’s video and reading through your personal worldview and research mindset in business, my mind recalls the fact that theory sounds like there is no evidence to prove the point otherwise. When you talk about ethics, one thinks of the systems of moral principles and rules of conduct recognized in respect to a particular group which sound very much theoretical. The question then is how do we prove these theories?
Research is about testing a theory about something which is referred to as deductive theory and in your post my follow up question seeks to find out that theory in the real sense that you intend your research questions to address.
Just like in your post, James Simon passionately talks about values and beliefs and he indicates that he follows these up with a questioning process.
Reference:
Laureate Education, Inc. (Executive Producer). (2008). Theory. Baltimore: Executive Producer.
Question 2 posted by James
Listening to Dr. Michael Patton’s video and reading through your personal worldview and research mindset in business, my mind recalls the fact that theory sounds like there is no evidence to prove the point otherwise. When you talk about ethics, one thinks of the systems of moral principles and rules of conduct recognized in respect to a particular group which sound very much theoretical. The question then is how do we prove these theories?
Research is about testing a theory about something which is referred to as deductive theory and in your post my follow up question seeks to find out that theory in the real sense that you intend your research questions to address.
Just like in your post, James Simon passionately talks about values and beliefs and he indicates that he follows these up with a questioning process.
Reference:
Laureate Education, Inc. (Executive Producer). (2008). Theory. Baltimore: Executive Producer.
please answer each colleague individually wit one reference in regards to my post.
SAMPLE ANSWER
Response to Simon
Several theories have been proposed by scholars in a bid to explain various occurrences and behaviors in the society. In fact, the very foundation of must scientific researches is based on theoretical perspectives, which do not have any basis or evidential proof (Newborn, 2001). As an individual, I have been fixated on theories that explain social phenomena, otherwise referred to as worldviews. For instance, I have personally grown to like Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs theory, which provides logical view of the various needs human beings have in a chronological order. This is the theory I would like to prove.
Ordinarily, If I were to prove Maslow’s theory, and provide evidence that it works, I would engage in an actual study, involving live participants. Basically, conducting a research is the best way to establish the truth about an hypothesis. I would involve participants in a study with detailed questionnaires, augmented with a systematic study of behaviors. Of course, my research will be guided with specific questions, addressing the salient points that would facilitate the establishment of proof of the hypothesis proposed by the theorist (Newborn, 2001). Using general connotations such as societal ethics does not hold any evidence, but identifying real life examples of the application of the said theory does.
I beg to differ your perspective that is instigated by Dr. Michael Patton’s video, that theories have no evidence to prove them. I, on the other hand, believe that theories and worldviews are actually the only logical explanations to the various phenomena in a unique society. However, to ensure that this claim is substantiated, it is imperative that one engages in either a qualitative or quantitative research, summing up into a deductive theory.
Reference
Newborn, M. (2001). Automated theorem proving: Theory and practice. New York: Springer.
Response to James
Several theories have been proposed by scholars in a bid to explain various occurrences and behaviors in the society. In fact, the very foundation of must scientific researches is based on theoretical perspectives, which do not have any basis or evidential proof. As an individual, I have been fixated on theories that explain social phenomena, otherwise referred to as worldviews. For instance, I have personally grown to like Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs theory, which provides logical view of the various needs human beings have in a chronological order. This is the theory I would like to prove.
Ordinarily, If I were to prove Maslow’s theory, and provide evidence that it works, I would engage in an actual study, involving live participants. Basically, conducting a research is the best way to establish the truth about an hypothesis (Gao, Goto, & Cheng, 2014). I would involve participants in a study with detailed questionnaires, augmented with a systematic study of behaviors. Of course, my research will be guided with specific questions, addressing the salient points that would facilitate the establishment of proof of the hypothesis proposed by the theorist. Using general connotations such as societal ethics does not hold any evidence, but identifying real life examples of the application of the said theory does.
I beg to differ your perspective that is instigated by Dr. Michael Patton’s video, that theories have no evidence to prove them. I, on the other hand, believe that theories and worldviews are actually the only logical explanations to the various phenomena in a unique society. However, to ensure that this claim is substantiated, it is imperative that one engages in either a qualitative or quantitative research, summing up into a deductive theory.
Write 300 words about the law and journalism using the information attached to the order.
SAMPLE ANSWER
Law and Journalism
Law structures the manner in which people interact within a set of social norms. This way, law is a defining aspect for communities and it determines who belongs. Law is a very important societal aspect because it reflects the aspirational norms and rules of the community it regulates. It only maintains legitimate authority if it can play its role effectively. Journalism faces similar problems because its professional projects becomes increasingly blurred and aligned with business. Law has an upper authority on journalism because it regulates the amount of information that should be conveyed on media and dictates the scope of a journalist’s work (Breit, 2014).
According to the General Principles of the Press Council, news and comments should be presented in a manner that is fair and respects the privacy and sensibilities of people, although this does not mean that some matters which are on the public record or significantly in the public interest should be omitted. Privacy Principles require journalists to ensure when gathering news, they do not cause undue intrusions on the privacy of people and that public members caught up in newsworthy events should not be exploited (The Sydney Morning Herald, 2014).
The media faces numerous challenges, with the conventional business models thrown into turmoil by new media platforms. Although from the outsider perspective, there has been a minimal number of cases of journalists being persecuted for contempt of court, from the insider perspective there are many issues that deserve professional security and reflection. There are career consequences that arise from journalists being persecuted for contempt of court and having a criminal record. Breit (2011) notes that media publications have received massive criticism for the traumatizing of victims of crime, inserting pressure on proceedings, affecting the impartiality of jurors and undermining the confidence of the public in the judicial system.
References
Breit, R. (2011). Professional Communication: Legal and Ethical Issues, 2nd ed. Lexis Nexis, Butterworths: Australia.
This is the second question of four questions in the comprehensive exam toward PhD program. I have already sent my information and all four questions at once, but in case you may need it again, can be forwarded.
Four questions are pasted below, please respond to the second question and when doing so please pay attention to the informative papers that have been sent for previous question:
Question 1: Theory
Theories play a vitally important role in guiding research and organizing and making sense of research findings. In spite of the great importance of theory-building and theory testing within your field of specialization, there is no generally accepted conception of what a theory is. Because your dissertation must contribute to theory, you must have a clear understanding of the variety of conceptions of theory, types of theories, and ways of contributing to theory and be able to justify how, exactly, your study contributes to theory.
Part 1
Using Gelso (2006), Harlow (2009), Stam, H. (2000, 2010), Wacker (1999), and five additional peer-reviewed articles from your specialization, discuss scholarly views on the nature and types of theory. Compare and contrast at least three views of what constitutes a theory, including the view you will use in Part 3 of this question. Be sure to distinguish theory from related concepts, such as hypothesis, paradigm, model, and concept.
Part 2
Using Ellis & Levy (2008), Harlow, E. (2009), and five additional peer-reviewed articles, review the scholarly literature on the relationship between theory and research and the ways research (quantitative and qualitative) can contribute to theory. Discuss at least three ways research can contribute to theory.
Part 3
Pick a theory (in one of the views of what constitutes a theory that you identified in Part 1) of current interest directly related to the topic area of your dissertation. A theory is currently of interest if there are articles published on it in the past five years. Using at least 10 published, peer-reviewed research articles:
1. Explain how the theory adds or may add to our understanding of your field and/or research topic.
2. Discuss and analyze the literature on two areas of controversy or unanswered questions related to the theory.
The structure of your paper should be as follows:
Title page
Body (10-15 pages, no more or less; APA Style; use appropriate headings for organization of the paper)
References (APA Style)
Learning Outcomes:
1. Compose a theoretically sound and conceptually rich essay that demonstrates knowledge of fundamental subject areas of a student’s academic discipline and specialization.
Question 2: Practical Application
Your dissertation research must contribute to theory. Your research and the theory to which it contributes may or may not have a practical benefit or application. There is no doubt, however, that there is a theory in your dissertation topic area that does have a practical application.
Part 1
Referencing at least five peer-reviewed journal articles or scholarly books, discuss views on the relationship between theory and application or practice. How can a theory guide or inform practice? What are the issues involved in translating theory into practice? Be sure to keep in mind the various conceptions of theory you discussed in Question 1.
Part 2
Referencing at least five peer-reviewed journal articles, fully describe a theory of current interest in your topic area. A theory is currently of interest if there are articles published on it in the past five years. This theory may or may not be the same as the one you examined in Question 1, Part 3. Describe a current view of the theory, not the founder’s view or a classic view. Your answer should be no more than three pages long.
Part 3
Identify at least five scholarly articles (published in the last 5 years) that address how the theory you discussed in Part 2 has actually been applied. (Draw on your response to Part 1 in order to define what you mean by an application of a theory to an actual problem or situation.) Critically evaluate the appropriateness of the uses to which the theory has been applied. Consider, for example: Are the applications premised upon an accurate understanding of the theory and its scope? Do the applications “go beyond” what the theory claims? Is the reasoning linking application and theory sound?
The structure of your paper should be as follows:
Title page
Body (10-15 pages, no more or less; APA Style; use appropriate headings for organization of the paper)
References (APA Style)
Learning Outcomes:
2. Critique existing research and design a methodologically sound approach to research in the student’s academic specialization(s).
Question 3: Research
The ability to read, understand, critique, and integrate research studies and to design a study to address a gap in the research literature is a vital tool for a doctoral student. As you write your dissertation, you may be reading hundreds of studies, many of which you will evaluate as part of a coherent literature review.
Select five empirical articles from peer-reviewed journals that:
• you consider critical to your understanding of your area of dissertation research
• all address a particular phenomenon and attempt to contribute to theory about it
Part 1
1. Describe each study, including:
• the research problem, questions, or hypotheses
• the research purpose
• type of design and elements of the design (e.g., sample, data analysis, operationalization of constructs)
• threats to validity and if and how they were addressed
• the findings and their implications
2. Critically evaluate each study: Does the author make a compelling case for the meaning and significance of the findings?
Part 2
Write a literature review that explains what is known and not known about the phenomenon based on a critical evaluation of the five studies.
Part 3
Develop a research question that addresses one of the unknowns you identified in Part 2 and sketch a quantitative or qualitative study that can answer the question about what is unknown and contribute to theory (in some sense of theory you discuss in Question 1).
Address:
• the research purpose
• type of design and elements of the design (e.g., sample, the type of data you need to collect and how you will collect it, data analysis)
• the strengths and weaknesses of your envisioned design and methods
• quantitative: threats to validity and how your design will address them
• quantitative: the constructs you will measure and what you will do in order to determine how to operationalize them (you need not identify specific measures)
• qualitative: your means of ensuring the quality of your findings
• justification for why your chosen design and methods are more appropriate for your research question than alternatives you have considered
• your methods of data analysis
• how the data you collect will enable you to answer your research question and contribute to theory
Draw on the additional resources for this course for guidance in understanding the concepts (e.g., internal validity, threats to validity, and operationalization) needed to address this question.
The structure of your paper should be as follows:
Title page
Body (10-15 pages, no more or less; APA Style; use appropriate headings for organization of the paper)
References (APA Style)
Learning Outcomes:
3. Apply relevant theory and research from the student’s specialization coursework to real life situations where he or she solves specific problems and discusses implications.
Question 4: Ethics
As you know, scientific research must be conducted in accordance with ethical principles. The ethical principles of research are defined in:
The National Academy Of Sciences, National Academy Of Engineering, and Institute Of Medicine Of The National Academies have a more detailed and comprehensive set of ethical guidelines for scientific research:
Committee on Science, Engineering, and Public Policy (U.S.), National Academy of Sciences (U.S.), National Academy of Engineering., & Institute of Medicine (U.S.). (2009) On being a scientist: A guide to responsible conduct in research, (3rd ed.). Washington, D.C: National Academies Press. http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=12192
Write a paper in which you discuss how you will ensure that all aspects of your doctoral research, from literature review to conducting research, to writing the dissertation manuscript will be done with care and integrity and will meet the ethical standards of scientific research. Reference the two publications above and at least five additional peer-reviewed articles.
You must justify all the steps you will take to ensure the ethical integrity of your dissertation project and not simply describe standard practice. You must show that you have your own clear set of ethical principles and that you know how to apply them to your work. You must do more than just paraphrase ethical guidelines. You must explain specifically how you will apply published ethical guidelines and concepts to what you will do in your research (as you envision it at this point).
Be sure to address the following:
• Plagiarism
• Risk assessment
• Informed consent
• Privacy and confidentiality
• Data handling and reporting
• Mistakes and negligence
• Working with a Mentor
• Northcentral University requirements for IRB approval
Conclude your paper with your thoughts on the following statement:
Ethical scientific researchers have a commitment to all who are touched by their research—participants who share their lives and time, mentors and advisors, reviewers, future readers, and supporters and cheerleaders on the journey—to take care and do their work well.
The structure of your paper should be as follows:
Title page
Body (10-15 pages, no more or less; APA Style; use appropriate headings for organization of the paper)
References (APA Style)
Learning Outcomes:
4. Integrate knowledge of ethical practices with principles of professional practice as it applies to specific scenarios within the student’s academic discipline and specialization.
SAMPLE ANSWER
Comprehensive Exam: Question 2
Part 1
Relationship between Theory and Practice
The association existing between practice and theory happens to be an extensive discussion in various scholarly literatures that cover diverse disciplines or fields of study. According to Aertsen, Jaspaert and Van-Gorp (2013), the systematic nature of any theory is often focused on the provision of an illustrative or explanatory leverage on a given issue by offering descriptions of innovative characteristics of events/phenomena. A theory can also provide predictive utility. In relation to this, there exist three influential notions/views/opinions that hold theories to be (1) instruments of performing things in the world; (2) reducible to observables; and (3) statements concerning existing things or events. All academic studies are dependent on theory. A theory offers a model for evaluation, enhances the establishment of academic discipline/filed in an efficient manner, and is required in the applicability aspect of real world issues. As such, theory acts as a driving force towards the accomplishment of practice and research. Apart from its application is social disciplines, theory possess a revealing and practical connections to medicine, physics, biology, chemistry and other life disciplines as it contributes to significant practice, predictions and discovery explanations.
Brownlie, Hewer and Ferguson (2009) argue that the most common/famous assertion or statement is that nothing happens to be as practical as a good theory. A good theory serves as a baseline in which appropriate/best practices can be established. Despite a good theory being significant in the realization of an informed practice, and continual maturity and improvement of a discipline, it also possesses the ability to improve the practice and comprehension/understanding of practitioners. On the contrary, many scholars have continued to debate and discuss various controversies that are associated with the association between practice and theory in relation to the perceived gap between these two aspects. These scholars discuss such controversies in two dimensions, which are the viewpoint of practitioner and academic viewpoint. Chan, Chan & Liu (2012), claim that practitioners are often asking the question concerning the necessity of theories and when they can be used by such practitioners. In relation to this, the academic happens to be guided and propelled towards thorough and increasingly relevant/applicable theoretical contributions/donations that may contradict the practitioners’ demands. According to Chan, Chan & Liu (2012), a theory is the reality, and its pursuit by academicians is based/grounded on its revelatory and explanatory potential, which has the ability to invoke themes within extant literature that can result into overall shift in paradigm. According to Hatlevik & Katrine (2012), theories have claimed that in applied disciplines of leadership and management, theoretical propositions/proposals should be inspired or drive by the appropriateness of the practice for the advancement and progression of knowledge within a continuous cycle.
A research-driven theory possess a direct relevance to practice, and is beneficial to the discipline/field. However, what comprises a theoretical donation/contribution within the field or discipline of study can act as another source of contention among academicians. In relation to this, a theory-practice association is considered a communication relationship. Sammut (2014) argues that engaged scholarship, which is considered a remedy to perceived or real gap, requires a more mode of query or investigation to convert information offered by practitioners and scholars into actions with the aim of addressing issues involved in a given discipline. Even within, methodological, theoretical and contextual situations, the use of a range of methods in testing theories informs practice, and yields substantive and valued knowledge. In relation to this, it can be argued that a theory yields research, and research produces and refines theory.
Ragozzino & Moschieri (2014) argue that there is often a tension between practice and theory. These two distinct realms are connected to each other via a process of application and abstraction. To describe this relationship/association by way of theory, it can be argues that practice reterritorializes theory and theory deterritorializes practice. As a result, this interaction can lead to a practice that is becoming a theory, and a theory that is becoming a practice. Furthermore, to describe this association by way of theory, it can be noted that practice happens to be an applied theory and theory happens to be an abstracted practice. Sammut (2014) claims that there exists an age-old issues/problem with the association/relationship between practice and theory in that individuals who are specialized in practice always argue that those specialized in theory are separated or detached from the real/actual world, which is the world of practice. On the other side, individuals who are specialized in theory always claim that those individuals who have specialization in practice lack fundamental understanding or comprehension of what they do. As such, the conflict between pro-theory and pro-practice individuals often leads to contradictory and incongruous practices.
Suddaby (2014) argues that, there exist a third group of persons that embody or embrace the becoming, the application/abstraction process. Individuals that belong to this category act as conduit in that they bridge the two worlds (pro-practice and pro-theory worlds). In relation to this, there exists a given art to explaining or describing the core of theory using words of an individual who practices. On other hand, there exist a given art to joining the essences associated with practices and submitting it to individuals who theorize. As such, building or establishing this bridge serves an act of creation, building or opening of space.
Suddaby (2014) claims that the relationship between practice and theory can be termed as dichotomous. In relation to this, the view of practice and theory as independent/dichotomous association between the mind and spirit, and the phenomenal world traces its roots in the ancient universe/world. For Plato the universe of appearances refers to the phenomenal world, which is understood or comprehended by belief and imagination. According to Ragozzino & Moschieri (2014), such a world needs to be separated or distinguished from the higher, abstract and intelligible world that is grasped via thinking, intelligence and knowledge. In relation to this, it can be argued that the Platonic views led to the ascendency of deliberate and careful observation of the phenomenal universe over the philosophical reflection. Moreover, Platonic views contributed to the establishment of a platform on which enlightenment, and the scientific, industrial and information revolutions were accomplished or attained. As a result, science, empiricism and technology displaced philosophy as primary methods through which the phenomenal universe and nature of human cognition, mind, being and feeling could be comprehended.
Issues Involved in the Translation of Theory into Practice
The association existing between practice and theory happens to be crucial in that practice informs theory and theory informs practice. However, there exist several issues, assumptions and controversies surrounding the translation conversion of a theory into practice. In the real sense, the gap between practice and theory is considered a knowledge transfer issue/problem. The initiation of information and dialogue between practitioners and scholars is a suitable method of addressing the perceived misassumption and divide between practice and theory. According to Chan, Chan & Liu (2012), engaged scholarship promoted the appropriateness of research for practice apart from its contribution to the progression of knowledge in a given domain. As such, this argument can be employed in addressing the issue of knowledge production. In addition, to claim that the knowledge of practice and theory are separate does not amount to the statement that these two elements act as substitutes to each other. However, it can be argued that practice and theory complement each other. Taking into consideration the association between application/practice and theory, a framework of four stages that explains the association between the two elements has been developed. The first phase of this model focuses on the conceptual establishment stage, which offers an initial comprehension and description of the dynamics and nature of a problem, phenomenon or issues that happens to be the focus of a theory. The second stage involves the operationalization process, which takes into consideration the explicit link between the conceptual establishment stage and practice. The thirds stage/phase involves the disconfirmation or confirmation aspects. This phase takes into consideration issues such as implementation, planning, evaluation and design of appropriate studies and research agendas to disconfirm and confirm theoretical framework, which is central to theories. Consequently, the last stage involves the application process, which tests or evaluates the theory via learning and experience from the real world context. In relation to this, practice is evaluated with the aim of certifying the relevance and significance of theory. This undertaking is executed with the aim of improving problem solving and action. According to Aertsen, Jaspaert & Van-Gorp (2013), the continuous or constant refinement and improvement is founded on the learning acquired from the application stage as theory can never be compete.
Part 2
Theory of Current Interest in My Topic Area
My topic area focuses on the investigation of the effect that the prevailing construction worker wage has on the expenses or costs of constructions of affordable housing for various seniors within California in relation to the employees’ wage rate of market construction. Taking that my topic area focuses on one of the significant role of the HRM, which is the determination of salaries and benefits of employees, the most probable theory of interest within my topic area is neo-institutional theory (Csaba, 2009). Neo-institutional theory exists among the principle theoretical perspectives that are employed in understanding organizational behaviors as studied or investigated in other organizations or as influenced by other organizations, and wider social pressures or forces, especially broader cultural beliefs and rules. Early or initial scholars/academicians focused on the theorization and documentation of the manner in which the construction of wider cultural rules and beliefs comprised actors, and enhanced organizational isomorphism, which involves the growing or increasing similarities of firms within a given field or discipline. Consequently, the scope o coverage of the theory was extended to account for the change and transformation of institutions or organizations alongside the heterogeneity of practices and actors in fields (Goldmann, 2011). Taking this aspect into consideration my topic area aims at ensuring that the current practices of the HR, which seem to embrace low construction worker wage, within the construction industry. In relation to this, my study focuses on ensuring that there is a transformation in the prevailing construction worker wage within construction industry. As such, neo-institutionalism happens to be relevant to my topic area. Being that neo-institutionalism focuses on the change and transformation of institutions several strands of views and theorizations have emerged concerning this theory. Most of these theorizations are related to the perspective of institutional logics. While neo-institutionalism is associated closely with informed debates and ideas in management and sociology, this theory draws or borrows most from social and cognitive psychology, political science, anthropology and economics.
Current Views of the Neo-Institutional Theory
Taking into consideration the evolution that that the neo-institutionalism theory has undergone, different scholars have established different views concerning the three traditionally/conventionally recognized forms of neo-institutionalism. These forms include the sociological, historical and rational choice. Besides, there has been a fourth development of a fourth view of neo-institutionalism, which is the discursive neo-institutionalism. According to Gruchy (2011), the three form of neo-institutionalism (sociological, historical and rational choice) share one thing in common in that they are effective in explaining the aspect of continuity, as opposed to change. Hasselbadh & Kallinikos (2009) argue that in all the three forms of neo-institutionalism, which are employed in analyzing organizations, the primary role of institutions is serving as constraints. In relation to this, political RI (rational choice institutionalism) focuses on rational actors/agents who pursue their interests by following a logic or judgment of calculation in political institutions or organizations, which are considered systems/structures of incentives. On the other hand, HI (historical institutionalism focuses on the aspect of detailing improvement of political institutions, which are explained as regularized designs/patterns and routinized practices that are subject to a judgment of path-independence. SI (social institutionalism) focuses on social actors who act in accordance to a sense/judgment of appropriateness in political organizations or institutions, which are described as culturally-framed and socially-constituted norms and rules.
Scholars have also made advancements in including views of institutionalism that transcend the political arena. As a result, a new view of neo-institutionalism, which is the discursive neo-institutionalism, has been developed. According to Junker (2011), discursive institutionalism is a common instrument among academicians/scholars who employ discourse and ideas in explaining political change or transformation within organizational/institutional context. Hatlevik & Katrine (2012) argue that scholars who take discourse and ideas seriously should be considered discursive institutionalists. Discursive institutionalism has been associated with many names such as ideational institutionalism, constructivism institutionalism and ideational turn among others. According to Ragozzino & Moschieri (2014), discursive institutionalism happens to be an umbrella concept/idea for the vast series or range of functions within political science, which take account or records of the substantive content of views and interactive processes by which process or procedures are exchanged and conveyed via discourse. In relation to the substantive dimension/aspects of discourse and ideas, discursive institutionalism (DI) academicians/scholars consider views about what ought to be and what is at various levels of generality. Goldmann (2011) argue that the ideas of what ought to be and what is should be focused on moving from policy views. Other scholars have also focused on the aspect of paradigms or programmatic ideas. Consequently, other scholars have also considered aspects of what ought to be and what is as deeper philosophical views. According to Hatlevik & Katrine (2012), various types of ideas/views with the inclusion of cognitive views that are justified in term of necessity and interest-based logics should also be considered in the determination of aspect of what ought to be and what is. Taking these arguments into consideration, it is clear that various scholars have conflicting views concerning the theory of neo-institutionalism.
Part 3
Appropriateness of the Uses to Which Neo-Institutionalism has been applied
The systematic nature, which is associated with a theory, focuses on the provision explanatory or descriptive leverage on an issue. As such, theory contributes significantly to explaining innovative characteristics of an event. Besides, the systematic nature of a theory allows it offer predictive utility. According to Csaba (2009) and Goldmann (2011), theory that is inspires or motivated by research has a direct relevance to beneficial discipline and practice. In relation to this, the neo-institutional theory can be applied to various disciplines or fields. This theory can be applied in five different areas of practice. Gruchy (2011) employed neo-institutional model in examining human resource management practices (HRM practices). This application was done in relation to multinational corporations that operate in nations such as Russia, Finland and U.S. The application of the neo-institutional theory in addressing issues involved in the HRM practice is often common in organizations that associated with the pressure and social influence to adopt best practices. In relation to this, it can be argued that employee development act as a significant source of competitive advantages to firms, which makes it significant for companies/firms to adopt appropriate HRM practices. Taking this aspect into consideration, the neo-institutional isomorphic processes offer three separate or distinctive definitions/explanations (1) normative as a result of the dissemination of professional patterns of organizations (2) coercive as a result of the government policies/regulations and (3) mimetic where firms imitate or copy other firms. It is vital to note that neo-institutional theory does not provide a lens for generic/broad organizational construct, but offers a lens for addressing institutional pressure. In relation to this, there are two controversial issues that are associated with the study conducted by Gruchy (2011). These issues are explicit despite the researcher identifying local institutional forces from the subsidiaries of the multinational corporation investigated in the study. The first controversial issue is that HRM practices are not championed or defined by any professional agency to warrant the presence of normative pressure. The second controversial issue is that the adoption of best HRM practices is not under appropriate regulation or is not regulatory. As such, it can be argued that neo-institutional theory helps in the comprehension of the determining factors of HRM practices. However, in the study executed by Hasselbadh & Kallinikos (2009), the theoretical constructs/buildups of the neo-institutional theory do not justify the event/phenomenon investigated in the research. In relation to this, the differentiation of the normative, coercive and mimetic influences presents problems.
Hatlevik & Katrine (2012) borrowed from neo-institutional theory to offer an in-depth understanding of the agents or factors that shaped how the policies of the human resource can be adjusted in relation to the externally imposed UK policy against age discrimination. In relation to this, the researcher’s theoretical lens addressed two factors. The first approach involved the examination of the UK’s policy on HR regulations, while the second approach focused on the investigation of other forces, which impact on the introduction of policies, apart from the legislation.
Evaluation of the Appropriateness of Uses to which Neo-Institutionalism Has been Applied, and the Researchers’ Accurate Comprehension of the theory and its Scope
Researchers have succeeded in demonstrating an appropriate use or application of the neo-institutionalism theory. As a theoretical perspective, the neo-institutional theory employs or uses three isomorphic pressures in analyzing forces to which the HRM is subjected. These pressures include mimetic, normative and coercive forces. Taking into consideration the perspectives of researchers, the convergence of these three forces can be described or explained within the HR (Csaba, 2009). The first point of convergence is the coercive force introduced by the legislation of UK against age discrimination. The second point of convergence is the mimetic force introduced by agencies such as the Age Positive and Employers’ Forum on Age. The third point of convergence is the normative force from professional networks like the Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development. As such, the study Goldmann (2011) focused on the investigation of how coercive pressure or force from new policy introduced by the UK government was viewed within firms in the UK. This goal was accomplished by focusing on the natural attitude associated with individuals with stereotypes and diverse agendas. Despite the neo-institutional theory being restricted to the study of the effects of isomorphic forces within firms, Goldmann (2011) identified that organizational aspects such as preexisting values, complexities, diverse stakeholders, interest groups and sectorial distinction complicate and delay the execution of legislations associated with HRM practices.
Despite the internal elements/factors associated with firms, the neo-institutional theory helps in the examination of events/phenomena within the theory’s proposition, with proof from the three isomorphic pressures. On the other hand, there exists a gap or need for further research on what comprises the definition of pre-existing circumstances and other internal values of HR within the context of the neo-institutional theory. Taking into consideration the views or perspective of the neo-institutional theory, Gruchy (2011) established a case study that can be employed in understanding how external and internal organizational factors determine the organizational actions. Gruchy (2011) focused on the identification of the aspect of regulation in terms of Sarbanes-Oxley Act, which comprises a force that encouraged/motivated the top managers to initiate or implement a change within ABC international. Interactions and communications with professional publications and associations comprised the normative influence. Although Gruchy (2011), could not discover the existence or presence of mimetic isomorphism, the assessment of the generators of pressures within the context of neo-institutional theory offered to separate effects. The first effect was associated with the coercive pressure of Sarbanes-Oxley that motivated top managers to mandate/command top-down information security that is related to changes across the whole/entire company. The second effect is associated with the provision of significant source of views concerning the security practices, policies and technologies that can be adopted by managers.
Whether the Researchers go beyond the Scope of Neo-Institutionalism, and Whether the Reason/Judgment Linking Theory to Application is Sound.
Despite the fact that neo-institutional theory does not describe how companies are supposed to handle conflicting demands, Gruchy (2011) employed the buildup dual influence from internal management and internal force in positing such conflicting interactions/association. Nevertheless, despite such as view being founded on assumption, it offers future research opportunities. Gruchy (2011) employed the neo-institutional theory in conducting a research/study with the aim of investigating the functions of institutional mechanisms, and moderating functions of social network systems and cultural values in dispersion/diffusion of global/universal work value within the realm/context of multinational firms or multinational organizations. Furthermore, the research proposed that the normative and regulative institutional processes have the likelihood of diffusing global work values in more efficient manner among the members or subsidiaries of the MNOs (Multinational Organizations). However, the coercive and regulative institutional processes are enacted rules and laws in specific environments that enhance certain forms of behavior or restrict others. In relation to this, the support of the regulatory or coercive force as experienced in Junker, (2011) study. According to Hatlevik & Katrine (2012), multinational organizations should incorporate the shared universal work values for them to create a working environment, where employees have the ability to coordinate their activities and communicate their views with the aim of reaching similar goals. However, approach is not applicable to or practicable with multinational organizations’ subsidiaries that are located in various cultures. Csaba (2009) offers a different perception about the international research/study involving the dispersion/diffusion of normative or coercive institutional pressures or forces with the globalized context due to jurisdictional preferences. In like manner, Goldmann (2011) hypothesized that leadership traits/characteristics, openness to cultural diversity, performance orientation and customer orientation are work values that can result into the transpiration/leaking of the global work environments. Such arguments cannot be generalized within the realm, of neo-institutional theory or the practicability of isomorphism as a result of the differences existing in institutional context nations. As such, such claims are considered an attempt to move beyond the theoretical proposal/proposition. Besides, the researchers’ reasoning/judgments have contributed significantly to the linking of linking of theory and application in a sound manner.
References
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Brownlie, D; Hewer, P., & Ferguson, P. (2009). Theory into Practice: Mediations on Culture of Accountability and Interdisciplinarity in Marketing Research. Journal of Marketing Management, 23(5/6) 395-409
Chan, A; Chan, K., & Liu, K. (2012). A Triadic Interplay between Academics, Practitioners and Students in the Nursing Theory and Practice Dialect. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 68(5) 1038-1049.
Csaba, L. (2009). From Sovietology to Neo-Institutionalism. Post-Communist Economies, 21(4) 383-398
Goldmann, K. (2011). Appropriateness and Consequences: The Logic of Neo-Institutionalism. Governance, 18(1) 35-52.
Gruchy, G. (2011). Neo-Institutionalism, Neo-Marxism and Neo-Keynesianism: An Evaluation. Journal of Economic Issues, 18(2) 547
Hasselbadh, H., & Kallinikos, J. (2009). The Project of Rationalization: A Critique and Reappraisal of Neo-Institutionalism in Organization Studies. Organization Studies, 21(4) 697
Hatlevik, I., & Katrine, R. (2012). The Theory-Practice Relationship: Reflective Skills and Theoretical Knowledge as Key Factors in Bridging the gap Between Theory and Practice in Initial Nursing Education. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 68(4) 868-877
Junker, J. (2011). Theoretical Foundations of Neo-Institutionalism. Journal of Economics & Sociology, 27(2) 197-213.
Sammut, K. (2014). Transformative eLearning Theory and Coaching: Application in Practice. International Journal of Evidence Based Coaching & Mentoring, 1(8) 39-53.
Suddaby, R. (2014). Editor’s Comments Why Theory? Academy of Management Review, 39(4) 407-411.
Ragozzino, R., & Moschieri, C. (2014). When Theory Doesn’t Meet Practice: Do Firms Really Stage their Investments? Academy
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Section 1. Research Problem, Significance, Question(s), Title: Quantitative
1.1 Proposed Dissertation Title
(Usually a statement based on the research question–short and to the point.)
PREDICTOR OF STUDENT PERFORMANCE FOR GRADE 6 IN READING: A CORRELATION BETWEEN STAR READING SCORES AND PERFORMANCE ON THE ALABAMA READING AND MATH TEST (ARMT)
1.2 Research Topic
Describe the specific topic to be studied in a paragraph. (Be certain that the research question relates to the topic.)
In order to identify and meet the learning needs of students with academic deficiencies in both reading and mathematics, The No Child Left Behind Act of 2002 [NCLB, 2002] (Sanger, 2012, p 43) mandates that each school district implements the Response to Instruction (RtI) model. Mahoney and Hall (2010) reported that RtI is a service-based model designed to meet the learning needs of students prior to diagnosis and placement in special education settings (p.1). The model also requires that schools have to make Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP) based on standards outlined in NCLB. Local Education Agencies (LEAs) are granted Title I funds to assist with ensuring that schools teach state standards to mastery (US Department of Education, 2003). In the event that a schools fails to meet AYP for three consecutive years, then the management of the schools becomes liable to penalties such as a compulsory restructuring of the school or an imminent takeover by the state.
In states such as Alabama, districts have utilized Renaissance Incorporated’s Star Reading and Math Computer Adaptive Tests (CAT) to conduct universal screenings, in order to diagnose interventions, and to monitor students’ progress (Alabama State Department of Education, 2013). Currently, the area of Computer Adaptive Assessment has elicited few quantitative studies nonetheless, summative tests conducted by the state identified that the assessments have led to an increase in reading achievement. Based on these findings, this study is designed to determine whether or not there is a statistical relationship between the STAR reading assessments and student performance on the ARMT reading assessment. The population for the study will consist of approximately 500 sixth grade students from three middle schools selected from the state of Alabama. The sub groups will be disaggregated according to their level of performance on both the CAT and on the STAR assessments. All sixth graders are assessed using the STAR assessment as an initial screening to determine the degree of intervention necessary for each student based on his or her scaled score.
1.3 Research Problem
Write a brief statement that fully describes the problem being addressed. Present this in one sentence or no more than one clear concise paragraph.
Statement of the Problem
One challenge for educators has been the ability to locate an assessment system that assists with determining which students are on track to meet performance standards. School districts must find systemic and systematic ways to identify students who struggle with certain concepts and be able to provide individualized, differentiated intervention and instruction appropriate for the students’ needs. It is important that the tool being used is an accurate predictor of the scores on the end of year state summative assessment.
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1.4 Research Purpose
Write a brief statement that fully describes the intent of the study or the reason for conducting the study. Present this in one sentence or no more than one clear concise paragraph.
The purpose of this research study is to determine the statistical relationship between STAR reading assessments and the performance of using the ARMT reading assessment.
1.5 Research Question(s)
List the primary research question and any sub questions addressed by the proposed study. The primary research question should flow logically from the problem statement and purpose statement and be very similar in wording although phrased as a question. Include alternative and null hypotheses as appropriate.
Research Question/Hypothesis
RQ1 – What is the extent of the relationship between student performance on STAR reading benchmark tests and performance on the ARMT?
RH1 – Student performance on the STAR is correlated to their performance on the ARMT.
H01 – Student performance on the STAR is not correlated to their performance on the ARMT.
RQ2 – Is there a statistically significant correlation between sixth grade students’ performance on STAR and on ARMT?
RH2- There is a statistically significant correlation between sixth grade students’ performance on STAR and on ARMT.
H02 – There is not a statistically significant correlation difference between sixth grade students’ performance
RQ3 – Is the STAR formative assessment a predictor of student performance on the standardized ARMT?
RH3 – STAR formative assessment is a predictor of student performance on the standardized ARMT.
H01 – STAR formative assessment is not a predictor of student performance on the standardized ARMT.
Variables:
Two variables will be identified for this study:
Dependent variable – students’ scaled scores on the Alabama Reading and Math Test in March, 2012
Independent variable – Predictor variables – the students’ scores on the STAR during first semester.
1.6 Literature Review Section
Provide a brief overview of the conceptual framework upon which your study is based. Identify the seminal research and theories that inform your study. Discuss the topics and themes that you will use to organize your literature review. Attach the most current list of references with the Research Plan.
Theoretical Framework
For the purposes of this study, the conceptual framework is founded on constructivists’ theories that include hypothesis by authors and researchers such as Piaget (1952), Bruner (1966), Dewey (1933), and Vygotsky (1962). Piaget (1952) is known for his learning stages including sensory motor, pre operational concrete operational, and formal operational. Bruner (1966) is remembered for the five E’s: engage, explore, explain, elaborate and evaluate. Bruner’s (1966) theories contend that students construct their own learning. Dewey (1933) theorized that children should engage in real life applications and collaboration with other students. He contended that knowledge is constructed from previous experiences. Finally, Vygotsky (1962) focused on scaffolding as a teaching strategy which is utilized in conjunction with the students’ zone of proximal development which is the “distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development under adult guidance, or in collaboration with more capable peers” (Anderson, 1993, p. 134). This theoretical framework is relevant to the current study because Renaissance Star Reading identifies students’ Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) that is defined as the range of reading that a student can engage in without reaching a level of frustration. The ZPD uses a grade equivalent to estimate the zone of proximal development, which is based on the Vygotsky’s (1962) learning theory.
On January 8, 2002, President George W. Bush, Jr. signed the No Child Left Behind Act into becoming a legislation. One element encompassed in the NCLB (2002) is its emphasis on the use of standardized, end of course tests in math and reading, with sanctions imposed on schools that do not perform according to state standards. ESEA (1994) and NCLB (2002) placed standardized tests on the priority list, and schools are compelled to utilize the results as a basis for measuring student achievement. In order to monitor progress, schools have adopted various initiatives as a way to focus on results through the collection of data. Tilly, (2006) identifies the example of some educators who believe that the newest educational fad is RtI.
Bianco, (2010) and Erickson, Gaumer, Pattie and Jenson, (2012) provided specific details about Tier 1, Tier 2, and Tier 3, which are the foundation of RtI. The first level of instruction, Tier 1 is also known as core reading instruction. Generally, Tier 1 takes place in a regular classroom setting, where students participate in a core, scientifically-based reading program. Tier 1 is presented in a whole group format and includes independent student practice. The scientifically-based reading program focuses on word study, vocabulary, fluency, and comprehension. Tier 1 is provided for at least 90 minutes each school day. Students are tested on benchmarks covered during Tier 1 at least three times during the academic school year, typically during the beginning, the middle, and the end of the school year. The purpose of testing students is so that teachers can determine and address their students’ learning needs. When a student is unsuccessful during Tier 1 the teacher serves as the sole interventionist. Teachers who provide Tier 1 must continually participate pedagogical in professional development, which provides them with strategies needed to ensure that each student receives high-quality core reading instruction. Students, who do not demonstrate sufficient progress during Tier 1, enter into Tier 2, which encompasses a different purpose and format (Bianco, 2010; Erickson et al., 2012).
Bianco (2010) and Erickson et al. (2012) reported that Tier 2 is the second level of reading instruction. The purpose of Tier 2 is to provide students, who were identified as struggling readers during Tier 1, with strategic interventions that will address their specific learning needs. During Tier 2, struggling readers are provided with instruction, which supplement the instruction they received during whole group lessons.
The typical amount of time allotted for Tier 2 is 30 to 60 minutes each school day. Unlike Tier 1, Tier 2 takes place within a small group setting, which usually consists of no more than 6 students. Also unlike Tier 1, which requires students to be tested three times a year, during Tier 2, students’ progress is monitored every two weeks. Also during Tier 2, students received in depth scientifically based reading instruction that also emphasizes word study, vocabulary, fluency, and comprehension. During Tier 2, teachers also provide additional modeling, scaffolding, practice, and feedback. Unlike Tier 1, which only utilizes teachers as interventionist, additional personnel such as teacher assistants and other trained individuals, who have been designated by the school may provide Tier 2 interventions. However, all Tier 2 interventionist must continually participate in professional development. When a student does not demonstrate adequate progress within the Tier 2 intervention, the student enters into Tier 3 (Bianco, 2010; Erickson et al., 2012).
The third level of instruction reported by Bianco (2010) and Erickson et al. (2012) is Tier 3. The purpose of Tier 3 is to provide intensive reading instruction for students, who continue to demonstrate significant reading difficulties after receiving Tier 1 and Tier 2. Tier 3 is typically provided in addition to Tier 1 and Tier 2 for 30 to 60 minutes each day. Tier 3 consists of intensive reading strategies, which target extreme reading deficits. Similar to Tier 2, Tier 3 intervention may include an increased amount of time. However, during Tier 3, teachers may also use of different materials and smaller group sizes. Tier 3 is also similar to both Tier 1 and Tier 2 in that it focuses on word study, vocabulary, fluency, and comprehension. However, Tier 3 includes intensive scientifically based reading instruction, which has been designed to explicitly, systematic, and corrective activities for students. As with Tier 2, Tier 3 interventions may be provided by someone other than the teacher. However, all Tier 3 interventionists must participate in the on-going professional development. Additionally, Bianco, (2010); Erickson et al., (2012) identify that students may participate in Tier 3 outside of their classroom or in any setting which has been designated by the teachers and administrators. The progress of students who participate in Tier 3 is monitored at intervals of one to two weeks.
Tilly, (2006) asserted that the national initiative has two facets; formative assessment and progress monitoring. RtI is simply providing research based curriculum instruction and assessment to students on tiers based on their specific needs as identified through data analysis (Tilly, 2006). Schools are able to identify potential dropouts by analyzing assessment data (Balfanz & Legters, 2004). According to Williams (2009), a benchmark assessment is designed to be an interim assessment that can be used for both formative and summative purposes and they allow educators to monitor students’ progress towards standards mastery and to predict their performance on the end of year exams.
As the district schools seek resources to assist them fully implement RtI, vendors are eager to sell their newest packaged program and materials thus schools are using computerized instructions and assessment programs to assist them increase their test scores. Gersten, (2008) illustrates data that is useful in identifying students who are at risk of failure in math/reading and need more intensive instruction. Alabama schools are implementing benchmark assessments in middle schools in order to begin early intervention for students at risk of dropping out and schools must begin early to identify and provide intervention to students who do not master the benchmark assessment (Alabama State Department of Education, 2013). Increasing the graduation rate has become a priority in Alabama schools. This study described one way of identifying students who may be at risk of failing state mandated standardized tests.
For instance, a nine grader who is perceived as being on the right track has a higher chance of graduating at the end of the course as compared to a ninth grader who was not on track. Bolfanz and Legters (2004) inferred that a student who does not show academic growth in the 9th grade is most likely to fail or drop out. According to Bolfanz and Legters (2004), seven states have graduation rates lower than Alabama: Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, Nevada, New Mexico, and South Carolina. On the other hand, demographic data show that white students in Alabama graduate at a rate of 75.8% compared to 65.4% for African Americans.
Renaissance STAR reading assessments are a way to assist schools with tracking children’s chances of graduating (Allensworth & Easton, 2005). If used correctly, this type of formative assessment can be used to inform teachers and parents of problems with how well students are responding to research based instruction. Schools across the nation are seeking ways to increase the high school dropout rates in public schools. The research is also based on discussions given by different authors on how middle schools try to identify students who are at risk of failing in their assessments thus helping reduce their chances or repeating their grade classes and dropping out of school. STAR Reading is a computer based software program that is used as a universal screener and progress monitoring tool for students in grades k-8.
According to data released by USDOE (2012), the percentage of graduating students from Alabama state has increased tremendously. In spite of the increase, the percentage number of students graduating from this state remains considerably low when compared to the national average. These empirical statistics imply that the graduation rates in Alabama are still low and as a result, the state has been lagging behind when compared to its neighboring states.
In order to gauge or predict the number of students who are likely to pass the end of year assessments, districts have begun to implement formative assessments as a quick way to gather data about student performance. Yeo (2009) contended that increased emphasis on scores have prompted districts to utilize predictive assessment tools to identify struggling students early in the school year (Allensworth & Easton, 2005). This type of formative evaluation offer an advantage of collecting data during the instructional process and being able to adjust instruction based on the data. (Deno & Espin, 1991; Shinn & Smolkowski, 2002).
This proposed study will address issues on how tutoring assessment is utilized to predict the chances of students’ success during the end of year assessment. Pompham (2010, p. 138) contends that formative assessment is a planned process in which assessment elicits evidence on the status of the students and thus it is used by teachers to adjust their ongoing instructional procedures.
With regard to the same topic, Herman (2009) asserts that very little research has been conducted relative to the effectiveness of benchmark testing. Brown and Coughlin (2007) insist that specific guidelines must be established to analyze the reliability of assessment items prior to utilizing them. Universal screening provides benchmark assessments which are aligned with Alabama standards and administered three times each year. These assessments are used to formatively place students in learning tiers and to allow teachers to monitor progress and predict performance on state end of course tests (Williams, 2009).
It is imperative that students are demonstrating high levels of performance in their end of year assessments (Amrein, Berlin, & Rideaus, 2010). Yeo (2009) writes that schools have responded to achievement scores by using predictive assessments in order to identify students who might be in need of special learning assistance. Bransford, Brown, and Cocking (2000) identify that assessment is a core component for effective teaching.
State assessments should be aligned with state standards indicating which concepts and skills students need (Wiggins, McTighe, & Tyler, 2011). STAR is administered to determine if students who perform well on STAR perform well on the ARMT. Herman (2009) indicated that little research has been done on the effectiveness of benchmark tests, and the reliability of school developed benchmark testing is significant.
1.7 Need for the Study
Describe the need for the study. Provide a rationale or need for studying a particular issue or phenomenon. Describe how the study is relevant to your specialization area.
Schools must have a way to monitor students who need intervention (Gersen, 2008). Furthermore, they need to know whether or not the tools they are using are valid and reliable predictor on the expected performance at the end of the year assessments. The reason for examining sixth grade, in this study is motivated by a recent decision by the department of curriculum and instruction that STAR reading does not have to be used beyond the elementary grades. Should this study show a relationship between the two assessments, this policy may be changed, and students may be assessed using STAR throughout middle and high school.
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1.8 Methodology
Describe the basic quantitative approach and methodology you propose to use. State whether the study will be descriptive, experimental or quasi-experimental, etc. State the name of the specific type of design to be used and describe the method(s) will you use to collect the data.
This study will utilize quantitative methods of research and analyze the data from sixth graders at three middle schools in Alabama to determine if a significant relationship exists between students’ scores on the STAR and the ARMT. The sixth grade was chosen because it is the first year of middle school and also marks the transition in the curriculum.
Leedy and Ormrod (2013) stated that quantitative research presented empirical and statistical evidence that helps explain given social phenomenon or problem. The use of quantitative research is seconded by the fact that it can be used to investigate larger population samples since it uses statistical analysis to summarize findings thus facilitate making inferences (Cozby & Bates, 2012). Quantitative research design also identifies an experimental design, which includes both independent and dependent variables. According to Creswell (2012), quantitative research designs attempt to maximize objectivity and are easier to be replicated thus ensuring credibility of the research findings. The results of quantitative studies can also most often be generalized to larger populations. Specifically, because quantitative research designs are not inclusive of the researchers’ bias, perceptions, and experience, the process is more objective. Furthermore, the use of numerical data from instruments such as surveys and make the results more valid.
Cohen, Marion, and Morrison (2013) reported that there are several types of quantitative research designs: (1) descriptive; (2) correlational, (3) causal comparative; and (4) an experimental research design. A causal comparative research design seeks to establish a cause and effect relationships between an independent variable and a dependent variable (Cohen, Minion, & Morrison, 2013). The current research study will utilize a causal comparative design in order to determine whether or not a computer assistive test is an effective tool for predicting student performance on the Alabama reading and math test.
STAR was used to determine students reading levels during the first semester. These same students took the ARMT in May. The scores from STAR will be compared to ARMT to identify the levels each students fall within. The results can be used to provide early intervention for those at risk of failure. T-tests will be utilized along with a correlational analysis using Pearson’s product-moment correlation coefficient abbreviated as Pearson r.
Data Collection
Archival data will be collected from 2012-2013 school year. The students’ names will be coded for confidentiality purposes. The names will be matched to ensure that students who took STAR also took ARMT the same year or vice versa. This is to ensure validity and reliability. The data will be disaggregated by test year, school, gender, ethnicity, and students with disabilities.
Data will be retrieved from district data warehousing systems.
Assumptions/Limitations:
Several assumptions were made for this study. First of all, the population of students is the same for both tests. Also, both tests are reliable instruments with the test items correlated or aligned. A regression analysis could be used to determine if the sample is a representation of the population, the variables are normally distributed and there is a straight line for independent and dependent arable. There must be variance of errors or variables must be error free.
Ethical considerations have been addressed; student’s names will not be used to ensure anonymity. The Superintendent has given permission to conduct the study prior to research plan being submitted.
DISSERTATION RESEARCHERS: STOP!!!
Forward completed Section 1 plus your references gathered so far to your Mentor for review and for Specialization Chairs’ Approval. (Work on your full Literature Review while waiting for topic approval)
Section 2. Advancing Scientific Knowledge
DISSERTATION RESEARCHERS: Do not complete remaining sections until you have received topic approval.
Your study should advance the scientific knowledge base in your field by meeting one or more of these four criteria:
The study should address something that is not known or has not been studied before.
The study should be new or different from other studies in some way.
The study should extend prior research on the topic in some way.
The study should fill a gap in the existing literature.
Specifically describe how your research will advance scientific knowledge on your topic by answering all of these questions. Include in-text citations as needed.
2.1 Advancing Scientific Knowledge
Demonstrate how the study (a) will advance the scientific knowledge base; (b) is grounded in the field of education; and (c) addresses something that is not known, something that is new or different from prior research, something that extends prior research, or something that fills a gap in the existing literature. Describe precisely how your study will add to the existing body of literature on your topic. It can be a small step forward in a line of current research but it must add to the body of scientific knowledge in your specialization area and on the topic.
1.
To respond to this question you will need to:
Provide a paragraph that describes the background for your study and how your research question relates to the background of the study.
Background
According to the US DOE, the implementation of NCLB (2002) has caused educators to focus on assessment as an integral part of the teaching and learning process. Educators are using formative assessment strategies to gauge how well students are likely to perform during the state mandated summative assessments. Lembke and Stecker (2007) asserts that the passage of this law has left these districts schools with no option but to produce positive outcomes for all students while monitor student growth over time. This has been implemented in most of the districts in form of formative benchmark assessments. Marshall (2005) contends that through the utilization of ongoing, frequent, formative assessments, school administrators have begun to marvel at the results they are receiving after the assessments. School personnel are interested in utilizing periodic benchmarks to predict student performance on end of year accountability tests (Olson, 2005). This study proposes to add to the existing knowledge base by providing additional formative assessment methods which can predict student outcomes when undertaking the state mandated tests.
Previous researches on the topic have identified that through current mandated reform standards, public schools and Head Starts are responsible for implementing high-quality intervention programs to help improve reading achievement of at-risk students (van Kleeck & Schuele, 2010). Early Reading First, Response to Intervention, Reading First, NCLB Act of 2001, IDEA, and the National Reading Panel (2000) collectively support the development and implementation of models to endorse early literacy development with at-risk students (Gettinger & Stoiber, 2010). The current shift toward implementing and developing systematic evidence-based growth models as an intervention ensures a child entering kindergarten will have the prerequisites to become good readers (Gettinger & Stoiber, 2010). In research, five essential elements of scientific-based reading procedures, including phonics, phonemic awareness, fluency, reading comprehension, and vocabulary, are pinpointed, which are important to early literacy development and future success in reading achievement (Podhajski et al., 2009). This study therefore borrows from the scientific based procedures thus guiding the answering of the research question.
Through the use of Star reading Computer Adaptive Test (CAT), schools claim to be able to predict whether or not students who score proficient on their benchmark will also show proficiency on the Alabama Reading and Math Test. The purpose of this type of formative assessment is to target students’ areas of weakness to be able to address learning disabilities before students fail or get too far behind (McGlinchey & Hixon, 2004). In o rder to ensure that students are showing academic growth, schools need valid, reliable means by which to measure their progress throughout the year. (Stecker, Lemble, & Foegen, 2008). This study has the potential to add to the field of curriculum and instruction by advancing knowledge in the field of tutorial skills. This study will build on the research of Yeo (2009), Fuchs (2004), and Lembke and Stecker (2007). If the findings are deemed worthy, this study will provide a means of predicting student outcomes in an effort to be able to examine the effectiveness of classroom instruction, modify instructional practices, and provide empirical intervention. This study can serve to inform school districts on whether or not STAR reading assessment is a predictor of students’ success on the reading portion of the Alabama Reading and Math Test.
Researchers across the United States are seeking alternative indicators in order to establish the predictive validity between various reading programs’ benchmark assessments and state assessments. Several similar studies have compared benchmark test results to end of year state assessments (Shadish, Cook & Campbell, 2002). One study addressed the correlation between Academy of Reading and Georgia End of Course Test (Brazelton, 2012). The purpose of the study was to determine whether or not a correlation existed between the benchmark formative assessments and the Georgia Ninth Grade Composition end of year summative test. The limitations of this study were that it was limited to Georgia and only two test administrations which was a small sample. Another study was conducted using data from three schools in Southwest Virginia to determine if there was a predictive relationship between fifth grade math scores and their benchmark tests. Predicting how well students will perform on a state test is important (Helwig, Anderson & Tindal, 2002; Happen & Therriault, 2008).
The researcher intends to add to the scientific knowledge by replicating past studies based on recommendations for future research found in past studies (. Scores of sixth grade students from diverse backgrounds and from three different middle schools will be examined in this study.
2.2 Theoretical Implications
Describe the theoretical implications you believe your study could have for the field of education and your specialization area.
The philosophy of education is founded on a constructivists’ theoretical framework that includes the beliefs of Piaget (1952), Bruner (1966), Dewey (1933), and Vygotsky (1962). Piaget (1952) is known for his learning stages including sensory motor, pre operational concrete operational, and formal operational. Bruner (1966) is remembered for the five E’s: engage, explore, explain, elaborate and evaluate. Bruner’s (1966) theories contend that students construct their own learning. Dewey (1933) theorized that children should engage in real life applications and collaboration with other students. He contends that knowledge is constructed from previous experiences. Finally, Vygotsky (1962) focuses on scaffolding as a teaching strategy which is utilized in conjunction with the students’ zone of proximal development which is the “distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development under adult guidance, or in collaboration with more capable peers” (Anderson, 1993, p. 134). This theoretical framework is relevant to the current study because Renaissance Star Reading identifies students’ Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) that is defined as the range of reading that a student can engage in without reaching a level of frustration. The ZPD uses a grade equivalent to estimate the zone of proximal development, which is based on the Vygotsky’s (1962) learning theory.
Quantitative Research is “an inquiry into a social or human problem based on testing a theory composed of variables, measured with numbers, and analyzed with statistical procedures, in order to determine whether or not the predictive generalizations of the theory hold true (Creswell, 1994). If successful, this process can continue to be replicated so that schools can make the right decisions relative to purchasing products claiming to predict student outcomes.
2.3 Practical Implications
Describe any practical implications that may result from your research. Specifically, describe any implications the research may have for understanding phenomena for practitioners, the population being studied, or a particular type of work, mental health, educational, community, stakeholders or other setting.
There is a paucity of research on what to do with benchmark assessment scores. (Herman & Baker 2005; Shepard, 2010; Protheroe, 2009). Wiggins and McTighe (1998) discussed assessment as an integral component in the learning process. They write that if mastery is not achieved, teachers should find a different method of delivering and applying a different form of assessment. Too often, schools use either teacher made or store bought assessment tools to label students; however, many aspects of benchmark assessments have not been well-researched (Brown & Coughlin, 2007). These assessments are only relevant if they are applied to the curriculum so that they can be used to predict students’ success during state assessments (Wood, 2006). For instance, if it is noted that a students who did not score proficiently in Star also exhibited a non-mastery on the ARMT, then, it is assumed that the placement of students for intervention was accomplished.
Review of Section 2. Advancing Scientific Knowledge
Does the study advance scientific knowledge in the field and the specialization area by meeting one or more of these four criteria?
Does the study address something that is not known or has not been studied before?
Is this study new or different from other studies in some way?
Does the study extend prior research on the topic in some way?
Does the study fill a gap in the existing literature?
_____YES ____ NO
Reviewer Comments:
Section 3. Contributions of the Proposed Study to the Field
3.1 Contributions to the Field
Briefly describe the primary theoretical basis for the study. Describe the major theory (or theories) that will serve as the foundation for the research problem and research questions and provide any corresponding citations.
According to Linn (2000), as early as 1920, students were assessed using SAT. In the 1950s, testing was being used for accountability and by the 1990s, standards based assessments began to be administered (Linn, 2000). This assertions are seconded by the constructivist theory which is also known as a theory of epistemology or knowledge. The theory formulated by Jean Piaget posits that human beings have the inert ability to generate meaning and knowledge by interacting their experiences with ideas. The theory is relevant to this study since it determines the interaction between behavioral patterns, reflexes and human experiences which are subtle factors in enhancing the learning process. The theory has been supported by other theorists such as Seymour Paper in his educational theory which borrows heavily from the constructivist theory (Ryan, 2006). Collectively, the two theories emphasize on experiential learning. It is believed that Piaget’s constructivist theory has greatly impacted on learning and teaching processes in the education sector and this makes the theory relevant to this study as it seeks to induce educational reforms.
In line with the theory, Linn (2000) stated that the assessment provides necessary documentation for the state of schools and a method by which educators are able to make informed decisions about student learning. Researchers suggested that there should exist a substantial predictive relationship between scores on benchmarks and scores on end of year tests (Herman, Mellard, & Linn, 2009; Helwig, Anderson, & Tindal, 2002; Ryan, 2006; Hintz & Christ, 2004). Literature by Black and William (1998) stated that assessments represent a constructivist view. The researchers also asserted that formative and summative assessments are interconnected, although formative has the greatest impact on student learning (Black & Wiliam, 1998). Annual state tests provide a comprehensive view of how well students are performing, however, benchmark assessments are needed to determine which students are prepared (Pompham, 2009). It is difficult to determine if benchmark assessments are, indeed, valid predictors of end of year tests; therefore, the entire process could be flawed if there are not actual predictors. Good predictive assessments provide teachers with timely, relevant data to be able to develop needed interventions for students (McGlin, Chey, & Hixson, 2004).
3.2 Contributions to the Field
Your study should contribute to research theory in your field by meeting one or more of these four criteria:
A. The study should generate new theory.
B. The study should refine or add to an existing theory.
C. The study should test to confirm or refute a theory.
D. The study should expand theory by telling us something new about application or processes
Describe how your study will contribute to research theory in your field by meeting one or more of these four criteria.
A. This study proposes to generate new theory about whether or not STAR reading computer adaptive test is a predictor of student performance on the ARMT. Furthermore, the findings from this study are expected to aid teachers and administrators about the impact of STAR on the ARMT
B. This study will add to existing theories about the validity or reliability of formative benchmark assessments.
C. This test will confirm whether or not STAR is a predictor of success on the ARMT.
D. This study will tell us something new about the relationship between the two noted assessments.
This study has the potential to advance the knowledge base in the area of benchmark tests used as predictors and build on existing research that posits that STAR is an accurate predictor of state tests. This study will expand theory by providing new information about the predictive nature of a benchmark test on students’ performance on end of year state tests.
Review of Section 3. Contributions to the Field
Does the Research make a contribution to research theory in one or more of these four ways?
Does the research generate a new theory?
Does the research refine or add to a new theory?
Does the research test to confirm or refute theory?
Does the research expand theory by telling us something new about application or processes?
_____YES ____ NO
Reviewer Comments
Section 4. Methodology Details
4.1 Purpose of the Study
Describe the purpose of the study.
Why are you doing it? (The answer must be grounded in the literature in what has been done–hasn’t been done or needs to be done.)
Creswell (2008) wrote that the purpose statement, the most important part of the study, provides the reader a clear direction and focus as to why research is being conducted. The purpose of this study is to determine whether or not a correlation exists between the scores students received on the computer adaptive program, STAR reading, and their scores on the Alabama reading and math test. The data obtained from this study will be used to determine if STAR is the best tool to use for tiered instruction and intervention.
Assessment is a high priority for districts and should be developed prior to the curriculum (Wiggins & McTighe, 2006) Frequent benchmark assessment and progress monitoring are essential components of RTI, RTI is a fundamental intervention practice which affords students the opportunity to receive modified or adjusted instructions based on how they respond to research based best practices (Fuchs & Fuchs, 2006).
District school are seeking benchmark assessments in order to identify students at risk of failing benchmark tests (Silberglitt & Hintzel, 2005) A quantitative study will be used evaluate the utilization of STAR as a predictor for mastery on the Alabama Reading and Math Test. The following questions will be addressed in this study:
Research Question/Hypothesis
RQ1 – What is the extent of the relationship, if any, between student performance on STAR reading benchmark tests and performance on the ARMT?
RH1 – Student performance on the STAR is correlated to their performance on the ARMT.
H01 – Student performance on the STAR is not correlated to their performance on the ARMT.
RQ2 – Is there a statistically significant correlation between sixth grade students’ performance on STAR and on ARMT?
RH2- There is a statistically significant correlation between sixth grade students’ performance on STAR and on ARMT.
H02 – There is not a statistically significant correlation difference between sixth grade students’ performance
RQ3 – Is the STAR formative assessment a predictor of student performance on the standardized ARMT?
RH3 – STAR formative assessment is a predictor of student performance on the standardized ARMT.
H01 – STAR formative assessment is not a predictor of student performance on the standardized ARMT.
Variables:
Two variables will be identified for this study:
Dependent variable – students’ scaled scores on the Alabama Reading and Math Test in March, 2012
Independent variable – Predictor variables – the students’ scores on the STAR during first semester.
This study will inform the area of curriculum and instruction by determining the predictability of a benchmark assessment, and provide districts with information about whether or not the purchased assessment is indeed conducive for determining which students will be successful. There was a study conducted to determine how a particular benchmark assessment was implemented to predict American Indians’ scores on the end of course assessments (Stiggins & DeFour, 2009). Little research has been conducted to determine whether or not STAR reading is a predictor of success on the ARMT.
Review of 4.1 Purpose of the Study
Is the purpose of the study clearly stated?
_____YES ____ NO
Reviewer comments:
4.2 Research Design
Describe the research design you will use. Start by specifically stating the type of quantitative approach you will use (descriptive, experimental, and quasi-experimental), include the exact name or type of design to be used and describe the exact method(s) (archival, survey, observations) you will use to collect the data. Briefly describe how the study will be conducted.
The research design of this study is quantitative using descriptive statistics (Salkind, 2008). The design was determined by the research question. A non-experimental correlation design will show the relationships between the two variables. Quantitative data are used to investigate larger population samples and are based on statistical analysis of data (Cozby & Bates, 2012). Quantitative research design also identifies an experimental design, which include independent and dependent variables. According to Creswell (2012), quantitative research designs attempt maximize objectivity and are easier to be replicated. The results of the study will be summarizing using visual representation tools such as scatterplot and graphs (Salkind, 2008).
First, the researcher wishes to determine if a relationship exists between STAR benchmark assessment and Alabama Reading and Math test reading section. Next, the researcher seeks to determine if STAR is a predictor of performance on the ARMT. A quantitative, correlational research design will be used to determine if a predictive relationship exists between two assessments. Pearson’s r will be used to compute a numeric linear relationship between the scores on the two assessments (Pagano, 2004). In correlational research design, two variables are measured and recorded (Creswell, 2013). Next, the measurements are reviewed in order to determine if a relationship exists and if so, what the extent of the relationship is for making predictions. The predictor variable, the scores from the STAR and the criterion variable, the scores from the ARMT will be analyzed.
Correlational research attempts to determine whether and to what degree a relationship exists between two or more quantifiable variables. However, it never establishes a cause-effect relationship. The relationship is expressed by correlation coefficient, which is a number between .00 and 1.00. (Gay, 1996). Permission from Capella IRB and the district Superintendent will be obtained. Data will be gathered from a data warehousing system. SPSS will be used to aggregate and analyze the data. The results will be analyzed by the help of competent statisticians who will guide in making inferences regarding the quantitative data collected. The results will then be reported.
Review of 4.2 Research Design
Does the research design proposed seem appropriate for the research question? Is the research design clearly and accurately described? Can the design answer the research questions or test the hypotheses with the proposed sample, design and analysis?
_____YES ____ NO
Reviewer Comments
4.3 Population and Sample
Describe the characteristics of the larger population from which the sample (study participants) will be drawn. Next describe the sample that will participate in the study and justify the sample size using a power analysis or some other justification supported in the literature.
The variables will be test scores of both male and female students of all races and ethnicities. The data to be used for the study will include the scores for the 2011 administration of the STAR reading benchmark assessment and the results of the state mandated ARMT from May of 2012 will be utilized.
The population consists of randomly selected sixth graders at traditional middle schools. Only the students’ scores of the students who took both tests will be included in the study. In order to ensure that the sample size is adequate to get a large representation of scores the sample will consist of approximately 500 students of both genders. Larger samples are needed for heterogeneous populations (Leedy & Ormond, 2001). The population is 1600; therefore an adequate sample has been selected because if the population is 1500, 20% should be sampled (Gay, 1996). Statistical validity considers the larger sample to reveal more accurate results (Creswell, 2003).
Review of 4.3 Population and Sample
Are the population and the sample fully and accurately described? Is the sample size appropriate?
_____YES ____ NO
Reviewer Comments
4.4 Sampling Procedures
Describe how you plan to select the sample. Be sure to list the name of the specific sampling strategy you will use. Describe each of the steps from recruitment through contact and screening to consenting to participate in the study. Provide enough detail so that someone else would be able to follow this recipe to replicate the study.
Random sampling will be used in this study. No actual student names will be used but pseudonyms will be used to represent the scores on both tests. The sample criteria are the essential characteristics necessary for the target population (Burns & Grove, 2001). Scores of all sixth grade students from the three “priority schools” will be utilized. The students at these schools are administered the STAR test and their scores drive the curriculum that they are placed into for intervention.
The criteria for this study include:
Students must have participated in the spring administration of the STAR.
Students must have participated in the summer administration of the ARMT.
Students must be first time sixth graders.
Steps from recruitment, contact and screening to consenting and participating:
1. According to Burns and Grove (2001), confidentiality must be adhered to. The researcher proposes not to link the students to the data but to use Pseudonyms to represent the scores on the two assessments.
2. The researcher will maintain privacy in all aspects of the study.
3. The researcher will obtain permission from the superintendent and Institutional Review Board at Capella University.
The researchers will gather the scores from the district data warehousing system and enter the scores into the SPSS to be disaggregated and charted.
Review of 4.4 Sampling Procedures
Is participant involvement and participant selection fully described and appropriate for the study?
_____YES ____ NO
Reviewer Comments
4.5 Instruments
Describe in detail all data collection instruments and measures (tests, questionnaires, scales, interview protocols, and so forth). This section should include a description of each instrument or measure, any demographic information you plan to collect, its normative data, validity and reliability statistics. Include (A) citations for published measures, (B) data type(s) generated by each measure, and (C) available psychometric information (including validity & reliability coefficients for each Scale or instrument.
Explain how each variable will be operationally defined and the scale of measurement used for each variable (nominal, ordinal, interval, ratio).
Attach a copy of each instrument you plan to use as an appendix to your RESEARCH PLAN. If permission is required to use the instrument, please attach a copy of documentation showing that you have permission to use the instrument.
The ARMT is a criterion-referenced test. It consists of selected items from the Stanford Achievement Test (Stanford 10) which matches the Alabama state content standards in reading and mathematics. Additional test items were developed to be included so that all content standards were fully covered. It is this combination of Stanford 10 items and newly developed items that is known as the ARMT. The ARMT has a 100% alignment to the Alabama state content standards in reading and mathematics.
Decades of research have shown that Computer Adaptive Tests such as STAR reading can be considerably more efficient than conventional tests that present all students with the same test questions. (Lord, 1980; McBride & Martinn, 1983). The ARMT is a standards based assessment used to determine mastery of state curricula.
The researcher will gather anonymous data from each administration as the research instruments for this study. The students test scores will be gleaned from sixth grade students at three middle schools in Alabama. An analysis of 500 scores will determine if a statistically significant correlation exists between students’ performance on the STAR and the ARMT. The performance groups will be all students who took both tests, low scores, middle scores, and high scores.
The criterion variable will be the ARMT scores, and the predictor variable will be the STAR scores.
Review of 4.5 Instruments
Are any instrument(s), measures, scales, to be used, appropriate for this study? Do the reliability and validity measures of all measurement instruments or scales justify using the instrument?
_____YES ____ NO
Reviewer Comments
4.6 Data Collection Procedures
Describe where and how you will get the data and describe the exact procedure(s) that will be used to collect the data. This is a step-by-step description of exactly how the research will be conducted. This should read like a recipe for the data collection procedures to be followed in your study. Be sure to include all the necessary details so that someone else will be able to clearly understand how you will obtain your data.
Muijs (2004) displayed a quantitative model in which he refers to the people or things that data is collected from as units or cases. The data collected are called variables, which by definition mean “different data” and the research question is based on the relationship between or amongst the data sets. Before data can be collected, approval must be obtained from the superintendent and the Internal Review Board of Capella University. A sample approval letter must be attached. Upon receipt of written approval, test scores from the district data warehousing system will be utilized. Data included will be:
2011 Fall administration of the Star reading assessment
2012 Spring administration of the ARMT reading assessment
Students’ scores on the STAR.
Students’ scores on the ARMT.
Although ARMT data is public information, STAR data has to be obtained through assignment of a password. Once the data has been gathered descriptive statistics consisting of the mean, median, mode, standard deviation, and scores will be computed using SPSS. This type of relationship will be distributed visually by a scatter plot (Creswell, 2013).
Review of 4.6 Data Collection Procedures
Does the mentee describe in detail the procedure to be followed in a step-by-step way so that it is completely clear how the research will be conducted? Is the data collection appropriate for the proposed study?
_____YES ____ NO
Reviewer Comments
4.7 Proposed Data Analyses
List the research question and sub-questions, followed by the null and alternative or research hypotheses (in quantitative studies) for each research question. Then describe all methods and all procedures for data analysis including: (a) types of data to be analyzed, (b) organizing raw data, (c) managing and processing data, (d) preparation of data for analysis, (e) the actual data analyses to be conducted to answer each of the research questions and/or to test each hypothesis, including descriptive statistics, any hypothesis tests and any post-hoc analyses, and describe (f) storage and protection of data.
Note: Be sure to include the level of measurement you will use for your variables in the analyses.
Research Question/Hypothesis
RQ1 – What is the extent of the relationship between student performance on STAR reading benchmark tests and performance on the ARMT?
RH1 – Student performance on the STAR is absolutely correlated to their performance on the ARMT.
H01 – Student performance on the STAR is not correlated to their performance on the ARMT.
RQ2 – Is there a statistically significant correlation between sixth grade students’ performance on STAR and on ARMT?
RH2- There is a statistically significant correlation between sixth grade students’ performance on STAR and on ARMT.
H02 – There is not a statistically significant correlation difference between sixth grade students’ performance
RQ3 – Is the STAR formative assessment a predictor of student performance on the standardized ARMT?
RH3 – STAR formative assessment is a predictor of student performance on the standardized ARMT.
H01 – STAR formative assessment is not a predictor of student performance on the standardized ARMT.
Variables:
Two variables will be identified for this study:
Dependent variable – students’ scaled scores on the Alabama Reading and Math Test in March, 2012
Independent variable – Predictor variables – the students’ scores on the STAR during first semester.
A Pearson r, will be conducted to determine the strength of the relationship between the STAR and ARMT. The groups will be divided into low, middle, and high performing based on scaled scores and cut scores. Results will be analyzed by SPSS and the scatter plot will show scores on horizontal and vertical axes.
Proficient scores on the ARMT will be compared to proficient scores on the STAR.
Review of 4.7 Proposed Data Analyses
Is the data analysis that is proposed appropriate? Is there alignment between the research questions, proposed methodology, type or types of data to be collected and proposed data analysis? Is the language used to describe the type of design and data analysis plans consistent throughout?
_____YES ____ NO
Reviewer Comments
4.8 Expected Findings
Describe the expected results of the data analysis. Discuss the expected outcome of each of the hypotheses and discuss whether or not your expectations are consistent with the research literature on the topic. Provide in-text citations and references in the reference section.
Research Question/Hypothesis
RH1 – Students performance on the STAR is expected to show a relationship with their performance on the ARMT.
RH2- There is a statistically significant correlation between sixth grade students’ performance on STAR and on ARMT.
RH3 – STAR formative assessment is a predictor of student performance on the standardized ARMT.
The hypotheses will be addressed by using the Pearson correlation between the STAR and ARMT. A statistically significant positive correlation would allow the researcher to reject H01. A p-value less than .05 would suggest a statistically significant correlation between the two assessments (Creswell, 2012).
Variables:
Two variables will be identified for this study:
Dependent variable – students’ scaled scores on the Alabama Reading and Math Test in March, 2012
Independent variable – Predictor variables – the students’ scores on the STAR during first semester.
Review of 4.8 Expected Findings
Does the mentee clearly describe the expected findings? Does the mentee discuss the expected findings in the context of the current literature on the topic?
_____YES ____ NO
Reviewer Comments
Section 5. References
Provide references for all citations in APA style. Submit your reference list below.
Review of Section 5 References
References
Ainsworth, L. (2007). Common formative assessments: The centerpiece of an integrated standards-based assessment system. In D. Reeves (Ed.), Ahead of the curve: The power of assessment to transform teaching and learning (pp. 79-101). Bloomington: Solution Tree.
Alabama State Department of Education. (2012). Alabama’s education report card.
Amrein, A. Berliner, D., & Rideau, S. (2010). Cheating in the first, second and third degree: Educators’ responses to high stakes testing. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 18 (14), 36
Anderson, R.H., & Pavan, B.N. (1993). Nongradedness: Helping it to happen. Lancaster,
PA: Technomic Publishing.
Ash, K. (2008, 2008). Adjusting to test takers. Education Week, 28(13), 1-4. Retrieved from ies.ed.gov/ncee/edlabs/projects/rct_245.asp?section=AL
Baenen, N., Ives, S., Warren, T., Gilewicz, E., & Yaman, K. (2006). Effective practices for at-risk elementary and middle school students.
Balfanz, R. (2008). Early warning and intervention systems’ Promise and challenges for policy and practice. National Academy of Education and National Research Council Workshop on Improved Measurement of High School Dropout and Completion Rates. Retrieved from http://www7.nationalacademies.org/BOTA/Paper%by%20Balfanz.pdf
Balfanz, R., & Legters, N. (2004). Locating the dropout crisis, which high schools produce the nation’s dropouts? Where are they located? Who attends them? Center for Research on the Education of Students Placed At Risk, Report 70(70). Retrieved from http://www.csos.jhu.edu/crespar/techjReports/Report7/pdf
Bianco, S. (2010). Improving student outcomes: Data driven instruction and fidelity of implementation in a response to intervention (RtI) model. Teaching Exceptional
Children, 6 (5), 2-11.
Black, P., & William, D. (1998). Assessment and classroom learning. Assessment in Education,
5(1), 7–74.
Brown, R. S., & Coughlin, E. (2007). The predictive validity of selected benchmark
assessments used in the Mid-Atlantic Region
Bruner, J.S. (1966). Toward a theory of instruction. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of
Harvard University Press.
Clarke, B., & Shinn, M. R. (2004). A preliminary investigation into the identification and development of early mathematics curriculum- based measurement. School Psychology
Review, 33(2), 234–248.
Cozby, P., & Bates, S. (2011). Methods in behavioral research. Utah State University Faculty
Monographs.
Creswell, J. W. (2013). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA. SAGE.
Creswell, J. W. (2003). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Deno, S. L., & Espin, C.A. (1991). Evaluation strategies for Preventing and remediating basic skill deficits. In G. Stoner, M.R. Shinn, & H.M. Walker (Eds), Interventions for achievement and behavior problems. Silver Spring, MD: National Association of
School Psychologists, 79-97.
Dewey, J. (1933). How we think: A restatement of the relation of reflective thinking to the educative process. Boston: DC Heath, 19377.
Erickson, A., Gaumer, N., Pattie, M. & Jenson, R. (2012). The school implementation scale:
Measuring implementation in response to intervention models. Learning Disabilities.
10 (2), 33-52.
Fuch, L. S., Deno, S. L., & Mirkin, P. (1984). The effects of frequent curriculum-based measurement and evaluation on pedagogy, student achievement and student awareness of learning. American Education research Journal, 22(2), 449-460.
Gay, L. R. (1996). Educational research: Competencies for analysis application. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill.
Gersten, R. (2008). Assisting students struggling with reading: Response to intervention and multi-tier intervention or reading in the primary grades a practice guide (NCEE 2009-4045). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. Retrieved from http:/;ies.ed.gov/ncee.wwc/pdf/practiceguides/RTI_reading_pg_021809.pdf
Helwig, R., Anderson. L., & Tindal, G. (2002). Using a concept-grounded, curriculum-based measure in mathematics to predict state-wide test scores for middle school students with learning disabilities. The Journal of Special Education, 36(2), 102-112.
Herman, J. L. (2009). Moving to the next generation of standards for science: Building on recent practices. (CRESST Report 762). Los Angeles: University of California, National Center for Research on Evaluation, Standards, and Student Testing.
Leedy, P. D., & Ormrod, J. E. (2013). Practical research: Planning and design (9th ed.).
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Mahoney, J., & Hall, C. (2013). Response To Intervention: Research And Practice.
Marzano, R. (2003). What works in schools: Translating research into action? Alexandra, VA, ASCD.
NCLB, No Child Left Behind Act of 2001: United States Pubic Law, Vol. 20, 6301, United States Congress, 107th Congress Session.
Pagano, R. R. (2001). Understanding Statistics in the Behavioral Sciences (6thEdition).
Wadsworth Publishers.
Piaget, J., & Cook, M. T. (1952). The origins of intelligence in children.
Salkind, N. (2008). Statistics for people who hate statistics. Los Angeles, CA: Sage.
Stecker, P.M., Lembke, E., & Foegen, A. (2008). Using progress-monitoring data to improve instructional decision making. Preventing School Failure, 52(2), 48-58.
Stiggins, R., & DuFour, R. (2009). Maximizing the power of formative assessments. Phi Delta Kappan, 5,641-644.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1962). The Development of Scientific Concepts in Childhood.
Wiggins, G. and McTighe, J. (2011) Understanding by Design Guide to Advanced Concepts in
Creating and Reviewing Units. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
NCLB, No Child Left behind Act. (2001). Retrieved August 13, 2013.
Popham, J. (2008) Transformative Assessment. Danvers, MA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development Publications.
Tilly, David W. III, (2006). Response to Intervention: An Overview—What Is It? Why Do It? Is It Worth It? The Special Edge, 19(1), 4-5.
US Department of Education (2011). ESEA Flexibility. Retrieved October 5, 2013.
Wiggins, G. & McTighe, J. (2013). Understanding by Design. Alexandria: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Williams, D. (2008). Changing classroom practice. Educational Leadership, 65(4), 36-42.
Williams, L. (2009). Benchmark testing and success on the Texas assessment of knowledge and skills: A correlational analysis (Doctoral dissertation, University of Phoenix). Retrieved from http://gradworks.umi.com/55/53/3353754.html
Yeo, S. (2009). Predicting performance on state achievement tests using curriculum based measurement in reading: A Multilevel Meta-Analysis. Remedial and Special Education, 31(6), 412-422. http://dx.doi.org/
Has the Researcher presented appropriate citations and references in APA style?
_____YES ____ NO
Reviewer Comments
Review of Scholarly Writing
Does the Researcher communicate in a scholarly, professional manner that is consistent with the expectations of academia and of the field of education?
_____YES ____ NO
Reviewer Comments:
Learner: Stop here and submit to your Mentor for final approval. Continue working on your final literature review while you wait for Research Plan approval.
Mentor: This form must be approved by all committee members prior to submission for Research Plan review. Please send completed and approved RP to dissertation@capella.edu for Research Plan review.
Directions for Reviewers
Please indicate your decision for this review in the correct place (First Review, Second Review, and Third Review) and insert your electronic signature and the date below. If the Research Plan has a Final Status of “Approved” “Not approved”, or other please be sure to indicate this Research Plan Review status below as well. Return your completed form with substantive comments to dissertation@capella.edu
Research Plan Information (to be completed by Reviewer only)
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Date Approved:___________________________
Further Reviewer Comments
This section is not part of determining Research Plan approval. This is an optional space for the Research Plan Reviewer to make note of any practical or ethical concerns. Reviewers are not expected to comment on these issues but they can make comments or recommendations if they believe these may be helpful. It is recommended that mentors and researchers carefully consider any comments made here as it may help flag issues or problems that need to be addressed before the researcher moves forward or before the study is submitted for ethical review which will be conducted by the IRB.
Optional Reviewer Comments:
This has been a Scientific Merit Review. Obtaining Scientific Merit approval does not mean you will obtain IRB approval.
Once you have obtained scientific merit approval move forward to write your dissertation proposal. It should be easy because the methodology section of the Research Plan corresponds directly to the sections included in the School of Education’s Dissertation Chapter 3 Guide.
If a mentee does not pass the scientific merit review on the 3rd attempt, then the case will be referred to the Research Specialist in the School of Education and/or the Research Chair for review, evaluation and intervention. Mentees, mentors and reviewers should make every attempt possible to resolve issues before the SMR is failed on
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Why do you think competency-based management of rewards is the least popular area of use
The following conditions must meet in the paper
1) I want a typical and a quality answer which should have about 1400 words.
2) The answer must raise appropriate critical questions.
3) The answer must include examples from experience or the web with references from relevant examples from real companies.
4) Do include all your references, as per the Harvard Referencing System,
5) Please don’t use Wikipedia web site.
6) I need examples from peer reviewed articles or researches only.
Appreciate each single moment you spend in writing my paper
Best regards
SAMPLE ANSWER
Management and Rewards
Competences have largely been defined as an individual’s characteristics that act as basic prerequisites of work behavior. They revolve around values, knowledge abilities, work style personality, and attitudes. The importance of competences in recruitment, training, coaching, and skills appraisal cannot be underestimated (Ilhaanie, 2010). This fact does not mean that competences are easy to institute and manage. In order for an organization to be successful, the competences of individual workers must be superior, updated, and focused on improving value of the assigned organization. This paper develops an argument that tends to explain why competency-based management of rewards are the least popular area of use.
When organizations chose to eliminate activities that do not add value, they achieve lean operations. This strategy can be complemented by implementing a competence-based reward system (Ilhaanie, 2010). This system uses an employee’s competencies critical to the successful performance of individual roles, to determine the value of their work output.
A competence-based reward system will reward employees for their knowledge, skills, behavior and other characteristics important for organizational success and personal performance and not basically the work activities they perform (Holton, Coco, Lowe & Dustch, 2006). When an organization chooses the competence-based reward system, it must ensure the environment is right for its success. The organization must, thus, make known to the employees the knowledge and skills that are valued by the organization and which it handsomely rewards.
When the standard of competent performance is determined, it makes it clear to employees what training development will be valued. Thus the Human Resource department will points out the training and development resources that will bring the employees to the level desired by the organization (Holton, Coco, Lowe & Dustch, 2006). For example, when a programmer skills set are measured against a lead programmer required competencies, it could emerge that the programmer lacks Advanced Business Application Programming (ABAP). The organization’s Human Resource Department will set in motion strategies to address this. One of which could be to enroll the programmer for ABAP training.
Proponents of Competence-based reward system point out that when it is designed to be the strand that runs between an employees’ pay grade and rewards to particular levels of competence provides objectivity in determining grades. A programmer with a proficiency in system and architectural languages should get a higher pay that one who has just system language. When this is the case, employees learn to associate personal development expectations with level of pay. The organization reinforces their employee behavior that support its mission and business priorities.
When an organization relies on a competence-based reward system, its recruitment strategy will borrow heavily from competence performance standards that link individual career progression and pay. This strategy will be perceived by employees as fair (Ilhaanie, 2010). To employees the ability to differentiate between job grades and titles makes them more confident in the organizations performance expectations. For example, a programmer may recognize that particular management, technical, analytical and communication skills required to obtain a promotion. This could make the employees satisfaction with the system given they view it as adequately addressing promotion and pay increases appropriately. This will benefit the organizations employee recruitment and retention efforts.
Competence-based reward systems do have some challenges, which make fuel critics’ view of the strategy. Given that employees are rated using a general criteria instead of specific accomplishment, these systems could introduce subjectivity in to the evaluation process (Shippmann, Ash, Carr, Hesketh, Pearlman, Battista, Eyde, Kehoe, and Prien, 2000). No two people can interpret leadership or ability to multitask in the same way thus it is possible to have inaccurate ratings.
This strategy, given the subjectivity of the evaluator, could be perceived as promoting favoritism. When an employee perceived him / herself as being more valuable than another, then discovers the other employee remuneration is higher, they could draw the conclusion that they are victims of unfair treatment (Ilhaanie, 2010). Unfortunately, the feeling of unfairness will more often than not result in dissention. This does not add value to the organization nor does it contribute its mission or goals.
Another challenge of competence-based reward system is the realization that establishing the specific competencies that actually result in improved productivity or job performance (Shippmann, Ash, Carr, Hesketh, Pearlman, Battista, Eyde, Kehoe, and Prien, 2000). For example, when a customer experience representative increases the number of enquiries handled in a day, it would be extremely hard to point out whether, the improvement is as a result of improved ability to multitask or increased attention to details thus helping resolve more issues.
In the development and implementation phase of the competence-based reward systems, they can be very complex and labor intensive (Hondeghem and Vandemeulen, 2000). This coupled with the financial investment that must accompany these systems – to cover training and support, could make the systems dear especially when compared to other reward systems.
With the rapidly changing environment, organisations are forced to move towards more responsive and flexible management models. Most organisations seek change in an effort to increase their performance. Competence-based management of rewards has emerged as one of the change strategies that have achieved the desired objective (Tett, Guterman, Bleier, and Murphy, 2000). Despite the competence-based management of rewards system being multifaceted and complex, its basic tenets are concerned with performance, view work as the context in which competencies are revealed, focus on people as opposed to jobs, emphasis on the need of behavioural evidence and reveal that there are several types of competencies that must be considered.
For most organisations, Compensation-based management of rewards has been introduced in the context of major trends or changes. This could include the changing role of managers, down or rightsizing or changes in organisations’ Human Resource practices (Kim and Hong, 2006). When the organisation sets out to develop a more inclusive method of selection, development, assessment or rewarding, it finds Competence-based management of reward to be the most ideal since it is more responsive.
Despite the benefits associated with competence-based management of reward, its implementation in the private and public sector has been selective. Organisations that have embraced competence-based management of reward have tended to focus mainly on management and senior and technical staff (Ulrich & Beatty, 2001). These organisations exhibit a high sensitivity to the competence-based management of rewards. They use both organisational and job variable as a source of competence, which aligns the strategy to the macro-level and personal orientation of competence. Indeed, organisations that embrace and implement competence-based management of reward are fully aware of the major benefits for employers, managers and organisations.
Competence-based management of reward can promote a better understanding of the requirements necessary to achieve high performance and personal development. For this group of employees, competence-based management of reward takes on a motivational role (Fleishman, Wetrogan, Hulman and Marshall-Mies, 1995). To managers, the benefits will be more technical. It offers to managers a more comprehensive tool for decision making and determining criteria in order to effectively manage selection, evaluation and development. It also offers managers a superior frame of reference to manage people.
It offers organisations better instrument for use in undertaking conventional HR practises. This is in addition to facilitating the match with people and enabling benchmarking in competence identification (Virtanen, 2000). When the organisation considers the benefit to be gained by aligning and linking individuals to its goals and values – strategic value, it gains more than having to adopt a more functional approach. Organisation must perform correctly the inference process from itself to competencies and their respective verification levels to derive the full benefits. Similarly, the same is true for its understanding of what competencies are and how best to exploit them for the benefit of the organisation.
Organisations describe Human Resource role as being predominately administrative and less strategic. Fundamentally, the changing role and competencies or HR professional is aimed at increasing effectiveness of HR practice (Gratton & Truss, 2003). It should not be lost that competence-based management of reward is not the best approach. It is the management, which if taken seriously, will provide the organisation a good pretext to experiment new practices and retain the most adequate. Generally, they are good instruments that reduce the knowing-doing gap. For the private organisations, compensation-based management of reward greatly enhances their conservativeness while nurturing innovation and experimentation with management practices and strategies.
Gratton, L. & Truss, C. 2003. The three-dimensional people strategy: Putting human resourcespoliciesinto action. The Academy of Management Executive, 17(3), pp.74-86.
Hondeghem, A. & Vandemeulen, F. 2000. Competency management in the Flemish and Dutchcivil service. The International Journal of Public Sector Management, 13(4), 342-353.
Holton, E. F., Coco, M. L., Lowe, J. L & Dustch, J. V. 2006. Blended Delivery Strategies forCompetence-Based Training. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 8(2), 210-229
Ilhaanie, A. G. A. 2010. Competence-Based Human Resources Practise in Malaysian Public Sector Organisation, African Journal of Business Management, 4(2), 235-241.
Kim, P. & Hong, K. 2006. Searching for effective HRM reform strategy in the public sector:Critical review of WPSR 2005 and suggestions. Public Personnel Management, 35(3), 199-215.
Shippmann, J., Ash, R., Carr, L., Hesketh, B., Pearlman, K., Battista, M., Eyde, L., Kehoe, J.,& Prien, E. 2000. The practice of competency modelling. Personnel Psychology, 53, 703-740.
Tett, R., Guterman, H., Bleier, A., & Murphy, P. 2000. Development and content validation ofa “Hyperdimensional” taxonomy of managerial competence. Human Performance, 13(3), 205-251.
Ulrich, D. & Beatty, D. 2001 From partners to players: extending the HR playing field. Human Resource Management, 40(4), 293–307.
Virtanen, T. 2000. Changing competences of public managers: Tensions in commitment. The International Journal of Public Sector Management, 13(4), 333-341.
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Day 5 respond to two of your colleagues’ postings, giving priority to those that have fewer than two responses so far. In your responses, be sure to address the following:
•Address the content of each colleague’s statement, as well as his or her alignment to the worldview types noted in the course text.
•Pose a follow-up question to each colleague for further Discussion.
•Link each colleague’s posting to other colleagues’ postings or to other course materials and concepts, where appropriate and relevant.
•Include proper APA citations for the course text, readings, and any external sources consulted in the preparation of your posting.
Colleague #1 ( Simon)
My personal worldview and research mindset
Research is the testing of a theory about something with the hope that such theory can be confirmed. Theory can also emerge from data that has been collected particularly when we are not beginning with constructs. Research helps in providing the needed information to avoid guesswork. Guess work brings about a lot of inaccuracies, which are avoided once a good piece of research work is done on a provided problem statement. The approach in the research design could be qualitative, quantitative or a combination of the two. In my own worldview opinion, a combination of qualitative and quantitative approaches is a better option to be able to gain close to accurate information. In choosing the combination approach, the key purpose or objective is to come up with procedures that aid in translating the theoretical aspects into practice (Creswell, 2009, p.5). The four worldviews or paradigms of Postpositivism, Constructivism, Advocacy/participatory and Pragmatism are aimed at providing a broad understanding from which one can chose a worldview of their choice or a combination of the above as well.
The worldview research approach I prefer is that which encourages more open-ended questioning as the researcher listens carefully to what people say or do in their life settings in this case referred to as social constructivism (Creswell, 2009, p.8). Qualitative research being alluded to here is exploratory and used when the researcher does not know the important variables to examine. My background affects the way I look at research with a search for the truth that works using mixed methods research for better problem understanding. Of course it has to be noted that the research problem or issue being studied determines the choice of the research design. My personal experience is that of making up close observation that is best realized through the qualitative approach.
Qualitative approaches that I have narrowed down to and that I prefer in my worldview, give room for being innovative, creative and encourage critical thinking as well as being open minded with a passion that leads to a study of a lot of literature while paying attention to detail. In the video, it was suggested as well that one begins qualitative to develop a phenomenon, develop some hypotheses about that phenomenon from a qualitative work that can later be tested quantitatively. Regardless of whether qualitative or quantitative method is used, it should be noted that research is an engaging and tedious process, which calls for good planning, being methodical, designing and being one’s own skeptic. A character of humility is helpful to give room for others to criticize my work.
References:
American Psychological Association. (2010). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (6th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
Creswell, J. W. (2009). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Laureate Education, Inc. (Executive Producer). (2008). Theory. Baltimore: Executive Producer.
Colleaque #2 ( kevin)
Personal Worldview
I am a serial entrepreneur striving to break out of the job class into the business class of society through innovative, disruptive technology commercialization. Through God’s grace, I have trained in multiple industries from software, photography, and transportation to arrive at a skill set capable of handling the responsibility of leadership over employee’s lives and families. The doctoral program will complete my educational background and bring the recognition necessary to secure the quality management staff and knowledgeable funding stream for a successful startup corporation.
My worldview closely resembles the postpositivist worldview, due to my search for knowledge through trail and error methods of accepting and rejecting a hypothesis. In addition, I strongly rely on scientific data and evidence to shape a refinement to the original hypothesis, but can see an intuitive leap through the raw data, which is where my idealism side manifests. Critical realism is my true worldview, which sees tendencies and searches for the underlying general cause to the phenomenon, rather than an observable positivist solution (Bisman, 2010). Many answers are unobservable, but still hold firm in the face of challenging arguments and I seek to add to the knowledge using this research method.
***** please answer each colleague individually along with 2 references each !!!!!
SAMPLE ANSWER
Personal Worldview
Colleague #1 Simon
It is good that you understand what research is and the purpose it serves. In addition to this, you need to be aware that research not only confirms theories, but also enables us to come up with new ones, adjust or accept existing theories, or nullify the theory altogether (Merrian, 2009). We also avoid guess work about what we are researching on because research uses scientific principles to come up with reliable conclusions in all fields. It is through research, you should be aware, that discoveries are made and unsolved problems find answers. Being conversant with the various research designs is useful if you are to select the most appropriate one for your kind of study. Apart from the three approaches you have mentioned, you should also be aware of advocacy/participatory research, whose main goal is to bring a positive impact upon the life of the research subject (Creswell, 2009 ). Your choice of a combination of quantitative and qualitative approach, also called pragmatic approach, is appropriate since it is more flexible since you may apply the techniques that are used in both qualitative and quantitative research methods. The mixed method approach to research is also most ideal because it appreciates the facts that each method has its own limitations, and so employing both methods somehow neutralizes the likely biases. It also has the benefit of triangulation, which allows for the use of data from various sources. Worldviews are important and helps in appropriately selecting the type of research design. Social constructivism, as a world view, regards human being as living in different social realities and researcher’s goal in this case is to gain an understanding about what is being researched, as opposed to making predictions (Neuman, 200). The most preferred method of research by most social constructivists are qualitative methods, but to avoid bias because of its subjective nature and inability of generalization of results, mixed method increases research credibility. There are several questions few questions though that you need address. What research approach would you use to ensure accuracy and that you conclusions are not biased? How would you know that your theories are accurate?
Colleague #2 Kevin
Positivism worldview relies heavily on scientific evidences and this is especially suitable for you. Positivists view the world realistically and apply a great deal of science in testing of hypothesis. Your real world view is, however, critical realism, which is a pragmatic approach. Post positivists require that you carefully observe and measure objectively the reality existing in the environment (Silverman, 2010). The most appropriate research design in this case is quantitative research, since it is best suitable for your worldview preference. There is however more freedom of using other research techniques as you may prefer, as long as you meet your intentions. The data you collect here also needs to be subjected to statistical analysis. Unlike social constructivism, critical realism possesses explicit values, which are very precise. You need to know that you need to have a hypothesis, and not necessarily one hypothesis, but several of them can be used, and you need to establish their relationships through examining the variables, since your research relies on quantitative research method (Borg, 2004). Some questions worth considering here include what data collection method would you use for your research? What reasons would you have for your preferred data collection method? And finally, what types of questions would you include in your questionnaire?
References
Borg. B.L. (2004) Qualitative Research Methods.Boston: Pearson.
Creswell, J. W. (2009). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Merriam, S.B. (2009). Qualitative research: A guide to design and implementation. San Francisco: John Wiley and Sons.
Neuman, W. L. (2000). Social research methods: Qualitative and quantitative approaches (4th ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Silverman, D. (2010). Doing qualitative research (3 ed.): Sage.
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Telenursing…the Future Is Now Paper
Guidelines and Grading Rubric
PURPOSE
The purpose of this assignment is to explore the specialty of telenursing as one example of the use of technology in various practice settings. Advantages and disadvantages for the patient and legal and ethical principles for the nurse of this technology will be explored.
COURSE OUTCOMES
This assignment enables the student to meet the following course outcomes:
CO #2: Investigate safeguards and decision-making support tools embedded in patient care technologies and information systems to support a safe practice environment for both patients and healthcare workers. (PO #4)
CO #6: Discuss the principles of data integrity, professional ethics, and legal requirements related to data security, regulatory requirements, confidentiality, and client’s right to privacy. (PO #6)
POINTS
This assignment is worth a total of 200 points.
DUE DATE
Your completed Telenursing…the Future Is Now paper is due at the end of Week 4. Submit it to the basket in the Dropbox by Sunday at 11:59 p.m. mountain time. Post your questions to the weekly Q & A Forum. Contact your instructor if you need additional assistance. See the Course Policies regarding late assignments. Failure to submit your paper to the Dropbox on time will result in a deduction of points.
BACKGROUND
Our text (Hebda, 2013) provides us with a broad perspective on telehealth. However, the specialty of telenursing is only briefly discussed. Healthcare is readily embracing any technology to improve patient outcomes, streamline operations, and lower costs. This technology includes the use of various applications based in various environments where registered nurses indirectly provide professional nursing care.
SCENARIO
The following scenario serves as the basis for your paper:
Manuel, one of your colleagues, is considering leaving his medical-surgical position where both of you have worked for the past 12 years. In fact, he has an interview in two weeks for a Telenurse Specialist position at a nurse-owned home health agency. This agency monitors the elderly and those with chronic illnesses to keep them from being readmitted to the hospital. Manuel is doing some research on his own and knows that the hours sound great and the pay is comparable. One advantage is that he can work from home (telecommute) most of the time and only interface with the agency for required meetings.
Manuel knows you are enrolled in this course. You have discussed various concepts that you noted in your Syllabus including technology, privacy, confidentiality, interoperability, legal and ethical issues, and patients’ access to the World Wide Web, just to name a few. Manuel has shared that he does not know much about telehealth and the role of nursing in this “new” technology. He has asked you to educate him on the advantages and disadvantages to patients of telenursing. Frankly, he does not understand what he might be doing on a day-to-day basis. One concern is the technology that may be involved.
Manuel has indicated that he realizes the final decision about a career move will be his choice, but he is seeking your knowledge based on concepts presented in this course. He wants to be knowledgeable about the role of the professional nurse in this practice setting prior to his interview.
You tell Manuel that you will need to do some research and that you will get back to him about your conclusion and recommendation. You have heard of telenursing and how it can prevent patients with COPD (chronic obstructive pulmonary disease) and CHF (congestive heart failure) from being readmitted to the hospital, but you recognize that you will need to do much more investigation.
DIRECTIONS
1. You are to research (find evidence), compose, and type a scholarly paper based on the scenario described above. Reflect on what you have learned in this class to date about technology, privacy rights, ethical issues, interoperability, patient satisfaction, consumer education, and other topics. Your text by Hebda (2013, Chapter 25) discusses telehealth in detail. However, your focus should be on the professional nurse’s role in telehealth, such as telenursing. Therefore, do not limit your review of the literature to your text. Nurses in various specialties need to know about the advantages and disadvantages of telenursing as it applies to their patients. For example, when you discharge a patient from an acute care setting, will a telenursing service assist that individual with staying out of the hospital? You may need to apply critical thinking skills to development of your paper.
2. Use Microsoft Word and APA formatting to develop your paper. Consult the Publication manual of the APA, 6th edition if you have questions, for example, margin size, font type and size (point), use of third person, and so forth. Take advantage of the writing service, Smarthinking, which is accessed by clicking on the link called the Tutor Source, found under the Course Home tab. Also, review and use the various documents in Doc Sharing related to APA.
3. The length of the paper should be 4–5 pages, excluding the title page and the reference page. Limit your references to key sources.
4. The paper should contain an Introduction that catches the attention of the reader with interesting facts and supporting sources of evidence, which need to be mentioned as in-text citations. The Body should present the advantages and disadvantages of telenursing from a patient perspective. The Conclusion and Recommendations should summarize your findings and state your position on whether Manuel should accept the position should it be offered to him.
5. NOTE: Review the section on Academic Honesty found in the Chamberlain Course Policies. All work must be original (in your own words) unless properly cited. This assignment will automatically be submitted through Turnitin, a plagiarism detection system.
6. Submit the completed paper to the Telenursing…the Future Is Now Dropbox by Sunday, 11:59 p.m. mountain time at the end of Week 4. Please post questions about this assignment to the weekly Q & A Forum so that the entire class may view the answers.
GRADING CRITERIA
Category Points % Description
Introduction 50 25% The Introduction provides evidence of an information search including in-text citations of the sources of evidence. It catches the reader’s attention with interesting facts and supporting sources.
Body 100 50% Appropriate headings are used to delineate when the introduction ends. More than three advantages and three disadvantages are identified, discussed briefly, and supported by citations.
Conclusion and Recommendations 25 12.5% Appropriate headings are used, making clear the conclusion and recommendations based on solid evidence, privacy rights, and ethical principles, and so forth. Writing in the third person, state your position regarding whether your colleague should consider this position.
Scholarly Writing and APA Format 25 12.5% • Title page, running head, and page numbers. (3 pts.)
• Introduction, body, and conclusion/recommendations sections are clearly labeled. There is a logical flow between the sections. (10 pts.)
• Grammar, punctuation, and sentence structure are correct. (2 pts.)
• Citations throughout demonstrate support of student’s ideas and opinions. (5 pts.)
• Reference page includes all citations. (3 pts.)
• Evidence of spell and grammar check. (2 pts.)
Total 200 100%
A quality assignment will meet or exceed all of the above requirements.
GRADING RUBRIC
Assignment Criteria A
Outstanding or Highest Level of Performance B
Very Good or High Level of Performance C
Competent or Satisfactory Level of Performance F
Poor or Failing or Unsatisfactory Level of Performance
Introduction
50 points Evidence of information search. Catches the reader’s attention with interesting facts and supporting sources that include citations to three or more scholarly sources.
46–50 points Evidence of information search. Catches the reader’s attention with interesting facts and supporting sources that include citations to two scholarly resources.
42–45 points Evidence of information search includes only one citation to scholarly resource.
No attention catching “hook” noted.
38–41 points Little or no evidence of information search. No citations provided and/or there is no attention-catching “hook.”
0–37 points
Body
100 points More than 3 advantages and 3 disadvantages from a patient perspective are identified and supported by citations.
92–100 points At least 3 advantages and 3 disadvantages from a patient perspective are identified and supported by citations.
84–91 points At least 2 advantages and 2 disadvantages from a patient perspective are identified and supported by citations.
76–83 points Only one advantage and one disadvantage from a patient perspective is identified and supported by citations.
0–75 points
Conclusion and Recommendation
25 points Conclusion is presented with recommendation based on solid evidence, personal privacy rights, and ethical principles supported by citations.
23–25 points Conclusion contains evidence for recommendation, but may lack persuasive use of privacy rights and/or ethical principles. Includes citations.
21–22 points Indicates conclusion and recommendation but does not address privacy rights and/or ethical principles.
19–20 points Fails to include conclusion or recommendation.
0–18 points
Scholarly Writing & APA Format
25 points • Title page, running head, and page numbers. (3 pts.)
• Minimum of three sections including the Introduction, Body, and Conclusions and Recommendations. Each section has at least three sentences. (10 pts.)
• Grammar, punctuation, and sentence structure are correct. (2 pts.)
• Citations throughout demonstrate support of student’s ideas and opinions. (5 pts.)
• Reference page includes all citations and no errors in format are noted. (3 pts.)
• Evidence of spell and grammar check. (2 pts.)
23–25 points • Minimal error in APA title page noted.
• Minimal errors in grammar, spelling, punctuation, and/or sentence structure noted.
• Citations are present but not in correct format.
• References are present, with minimal errors in format.
• Minimal red or green wavy lines within document.
21–22 points • Some errors in APA title page noted.
• Some errors in grammar, spelling, punctuation, and/or sentence structure noted.
• Citations are present but not in correct format.
• References are present, with some errors in format.
• Some red or green wavy lines within document.
19–20 points • Multiple errors in APA formatting.
• Multiple grammar, spelling, and punctuation errors noted.
• Citations are missing.
• References are missing or incomplete.
• No evidence of proofreading prior to submitting paper.
0–18 points
Total Points Possible = 200 points
Please, in the references include the book that we work on in the class
Hebda, T., & Czar, P., (2013). Handbook of informatics for nurses & healthcare professionals (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
In the guidelines it is requested to explain my position as a nurse.
I work as a Care Manager in the city hospital and providing education to the patients with chronic diseases like COPD, CHF, Diabetes to prevent re-admissions. And the patienst with CHF disease I refer to TeleHealth program to monitor and help to prevent re-admissions within 30days. Aslo, if the patient referred to home care agency after discharge , this agency provide TeleHealth services.
SAMPLE ANSWER
Telenursing
Technology advancement has largely contributed improved quality of service deliver in healthcare, which has rapidly driven its adoption. Many countries such as the United States and Sweden have embraced technology in their healthcare, and many others are following suit with an aim of enhancing quality and reducing the cost of accessing healthcare (Peeters et al., 2012). Telenursing has become popular in rendering healthcare to patients in various settings to improve patient outcomes, lower costs and streamline operations. Telenursing involves use of technology in provision of professional care. Telenurses who have multiple clinical experience are expected to work independently, make decisions about need for further care, and give self care advice or refer patients to another caregiver (Madoc-Jones et al., 2007). The paper deliberates on specialty of telenursing incorporating case study involving Manuel. It further deliberates on advantages and disadvantages and legal, ethical principles for telenurses.
Case Scenario
Manuel plans to leave his medical surgical position for a telenurse specialist position to work for an agency that monitors the elderly and people with chronic illnesses, so as to help them from being readmitted. However, he has no knowledge and experience as a telenurse. Therefore, the discussion explores on the various aspects in telenursing as well as benefits and drawbacks to help Manuel become familiar with the role awaiting him. Manuel works as a Care Manager in the city hospital and providing education to the patients with chronic diseases like COPD, CHF, Diabetes to prevent re-admissions and patients with CHF disease. He will use TeleHealth program to monitor and help to prevent re-admissions within 30 days. In addition, if the patient referred to home care agency after discharge this agency will provide TeleHealth services.
Call System Software
One of the technologies that telenurses employ in executing their mandate is the telephone. Telephone calls allow the telenurse to provide support and advice to patients at their remote locations. It is important therefore for telenurse to understand how to use this software to impact on their healthcare (Ernesäter, Holmström & Engström, 2009). There are different communication gadgets that are essential in facilitating communication. Telenurse understand the functionality of these systems, understand, the etiquette when communicating with clients. Some of the technologies that relates to telephone call system include central scheduling that permits certain patients to call and schedule their appointments and simplify tests.
Others such as speech-assisted automated attendant systems recognize voices and reduce staff overtime and other problems such as dropping of calls or negative patient interactions (Boye, 2006). Other types of telephone technologies in health setting include self-registered kiosks, wireless connectivity, master patient index computer terminals and online bill pay. Other useful technologies that a telenurse must understand how to use include, electronic health records, social media, tablets, Smartphone and computerized physician/provider order entry and clinical decision support among many others.
Advantages of Telenursing
Since inception and introduction of the concept of telenursing, various benefits have become evident in healthcare delivery. Researchers indicate that telenursing technologies have proved efficient in promoting quality healthcare especially in management of chronic conditions such as diabetes and chronic heart failure among others (Joseph, 2006). The rate of mortality and re-admission has also improved through telenursing services. Patients are able to access vital information and advice that helps them to manage their health conditions. Computerized decision support system is one of the valuable sources of information as it allows users to search and gather relevant information that impacts on the quality of health care (Ernesäter, Holmström & Engström, 2009). Through the decision support systems, accurate information is accessed and important tips on management of different patient situations is addressed helping in assessing the condition of patients in the best way.
Telenursing has become one of the most cost efficient approaches to rendering quality patient care. A patient will not have to travel to a health facility to receive care as this is done through the telephone calls. The patients, therefore, save money that otherwise they could have used to move from one point to another. Another advantage of telenursing from the perspective of the patient is that it is one way of saving time (Ernesäter, Holmström & Engström, 2009). A patient will just be required to receive a phone at their remote locations. This therefore, saves them time that they could have spent moving to and from a health facility. The other advantage of telenursing is that it improves or rather increases patients self-care ability (Hebda & Czar, 2013). The patient is given an opportunity to take care of themselves through the advices they are given through the call. A medical practitioner does not necessarily have to encounter the patient and this makes the patients to take initiative to manage their health conditions.
Use of home telecare is instrumental in improving patient independence and safety as well as provides support for those with chronic illness. Patients need not to worry about the shortage of nurses, as through the technology, many patients can be accessed (Ernesäter, Holmström & Engström, 2009). Patients as well have an opportunity to call and inquire about various issues such as medication to enhance their healthcare.
Disadvantages of Telenursing
Even though telenursing has a number of advantages, it as well has some disadvantages that nurses must look out for when delivering healthcare assistance to their patients. One of the disadvantages is that there is a risk of miscommunication between the caller and the receiver, which is likely to impact on the patient outcome. This is experienced especially when there are some barriers in the communication processes. For instance, when the patient is in a noisy environment, this is likely to affect the communication process leading to inappropriate medical advice (Ström, Marklund & Hildingh, 2009). This requires that the caller and the receiver/ patient communicate in a noise-free environment. Other forms of barriers such as semiotic, language can be avoided by ensuring that telenurses improve on their listening and communication skills to enhance the process of their patient assessment.
Another problem is that telenurses cannot see the patient to whom they are providing care (Pettinari & Jessop, 2001). This may have negative implication on their assessments and formation of opinion about the credibility of the caller as well as on the health condition of the patient. A patient may not be able to ascertain whether the caller is specialized and experienced in rendering the health care services or not. Therefore, these perceptions are likely to impact on the quality of care as sometimes the patient may develop negative attitude that may affect their recovery process. The caller as well may not be in a position to understand the exact health condition of the patient trough cellphone conversation.
Further disadvantage is the likelihood of conflicts ensuing between what is best for the patient and limited healthcare resources available. Nurses fear making wrong decisions, but if the resources available are not adequate, it may lead to ethical dilemma as some of the health providers may be referred to the healthcare system compromising on the patient care quality (Holmstrom & Hoglund, 2007).
Telenursing technologies are prone to security threats and other communication problems such as network problems that are likely to interfere with the communication process. During such instances, patients are likely to experience problems especially when they require assessment and advice from their telenurses and this may jeopardize the patient health outcome.
Conclusion
Telenursing is one of the professions that have taken healthcare to another level. With telenursing, various benefits have become evident. Patients save time, costs, and it promotes quality healthcare. Some disadvantages that nurses must look into include security threats and communication barriers among many others.
It is important for telenurses to understand legal and ethical practices in their duties. Even though technology is beneficial, it requires adherence to ethical practices such as respect, independence, autonomy, honesty, and integrity. When communicating, it is important for telenurses to be respectful to enhance communication. They are as well required to providw appropriate assessment based on evidence research to impact on the healthcare of the patient. There are a number of legal aspects that are important that telenurses need to consider in rendering their care, such as confidentiality and privacy. They must protect the privacy of their patients when communicating (Bohnenkamp, McDonald, Lopez, Krupinski, Blackett, 2004). They must not disclose information about their patients to third parties without the consent of the patient. Telenurses must also consider legal implications that relate to in appropriate use of telephone and communication gadgets. They are required to use the systems in an appropriate manner to provide accurate and sincere information to avoid any legal implications/consequences.
The opportunity before Manuel, even though is complex and challenging, it is recommended that he accepts it. Having experience in clinical settings serving as a medical surgeon for 12 years indicates that he has requisite skills and competence to provide care to patients suffering from COPD (chronic obstructive pulmonary disease) and CHF (congestive heart failure). Furthermore, he has a passion and if he is determined, he is going to learn how to use technology to render care. As a nurse, he should as well be ready to face challenging scenarios and yearn to grow in his career. I, therefore, support that he goes ahead and takes the job to help promote quality of healthcare and impact on patient outcome among his target population.
Hebda, T., & Czar, P., (2013). Handbook of informatics for nurses & healthcare professionals (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
Holmstrom, I., & Hoglund, A. (2007) The faceless encounter: ethical dilemmas in telephone nursing. Journal of Clinical Nursing, 16: 1865–1871.
Joseph, A. (2006). Care coordination and telehealth technology in promoting self-management among chronically ill patients. Telemed J E Health, 12(2):156–9
Peeters, J et al. (2012). Factors influencing the adoption of home telecare by elderly or chronically ill people: a national survey, Journal of Clinical Nursing, 21(21/22): 3183-193.
Pettinari C.J. & Jessop L. (2001) ‘Your ears become your eyes’: Managing the absence of visibility in NHS Direct. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 36: 668–675.
