Cilluffo, Cozzens, and Ranstorp (2010) outline potential problems areas associated with the trend of western nationals going into troubled areas and becoming radicalized. Read this paper and using it with the many sources contained within, answer the following questions:
1. How are terrorist recruiters using target assessment and vulnerability analysis in their selection?
2. What tools do the recruiters use to select targets?
3. Based on the reading, how vulnerable does the U.S and Western Europe remain today to this type of recruitment and utilization? Explain your position.
4. Using the Boyd loop, how would you prepare the steps for counter activities prior to the ACT phase?
Length: This Case Assignment should be at least 3 pages not counting the title page and references.
References: At least two references should be included from academic sources (e.g. peer-reviewed journal articles). Required readings are included. Quoted material should not exceed 10% of the total paper.
Organization: Subheadings should be used to organize your paper according to question.
Cilluffo, F. J., Cozzens, J. B., and Ranstorp, M. (2010). Foreign fighters: Trends, trajectories, and conflict zones. The George Washington University, Homeland Security Policy Institute. Retrieved November 20,
Terrorism is the premeditated use of threat by subnational groups or even individuals to use violence against noncombatants with an aim to obtain social or political objectives trough the intimidation of a large audience. Terrorism can be categorized as transnational or even domestic events, whereby domestic terrorism involves homegrown terrorists, who in most cases are trained at home and even financed there. On the other side transnational terrorism occurs when victims, governments, institutions, perpetrators of more than two countries are involved example the hijacking incidences. Investigations have been conducted to be able to discern the cumulative aggregate patterns of the terrorists over a long period whereby terrorist threats have changed over time (Brandt & Snadler, 2009). Along the perimeters of the government buildings, improved barriers were placed in order to minimize damage from the car and truck bombs thus; bomb sniffing devices were also installed at airports after on-board bombs brought down planes.
According to Brandt and Sandler (2009), terrorists are known to use the target assessment and vulnerability analysis in their selection process to improve their chances of success during their strikes. In addition, Hoffman (2006) supports that most of the latest terrorist attacks have been more successful than the past attacks due to initial target assessment that is designed to eliminate any possible errors. Moreover, the terrorist are likely to strike the most vulnerable groups with more a valuable price. With this regard, attacks on private parties have increased over time since they provide soft targets that favor their vulnerability analysis (Cilluffo, Cozzens, & Ranstorp, 2010). Terrorists are known to choose among their targeted groups to maximize their expected utility or even payoff since the average cost per incidence is constant and not dependent on the number of attacks. A state should not favor one type of target since this will increase the incidences against the target class and terrorists may take advantage of this. Terrorists who pose high political demands to the government, they become more publicly known for their cause of actions. If granted their political demands the terrorists may reduce the number of attacks against their target group and in turn they increase the number of attacks on a relatively cheaper other types of targets.
According to Brandt and Sandler (2009), there are many types of tools used by the terrorists such as bombs, non-aerial hijackings, skyjackings, hostage seizures, barricade and kidnappings which are regarded as the best weapons by the terrorists to their target groups. Nature of victim is a tool that terrorists use to select their targets and it helps them identify whether the attack only involves property or involves people alone. More missions against people rather than property are being completed as planned for all target types owing to relative considerations since their vulnerability is always high. Logistical success is another tool used by terrorists in selecting their target and this is done by securing one or more hostages in a kidnapping or even they may decide to plant a bomb that will later explode (Hoffman, 2006). Target classes, especially military and the officials are now allocated more security as we also anticipate to see a reduction in terrorist attacks on them. There are various media tools used by the terrorists in selecting their targets and these tools include: YouTube, Facebook, blogs, twitter, message boards, audio recording, DVDs and websites (Brandt & Sandler, 2009). These tools are known to provide figures that can bridge and relate to social subgroups in a comfortable medium that is well understood by the targeted audience.
The United States and Western Europe are vulnerable to the terrorist recruitment and utilization due to their deployment of their fighters in the Middle East regions which is the bedrock of terrorists. In addition, the stationing of their troops in Islamic countries has greatly fueled the mobilization of Muslim fundamentalist that are determined to advance the terrorism ideals. The western military involvement while tackling terrorists also continue to award them more sympathy, especially from the Muslim community who feel that they are being targeted with by the west. Moreover, there is a very high presence of social media in the west and the terrorist use such media to source for cheap recruits to advance their ideals (Cilluffo, Cozzens, & Ranstorp, 2009). Therefore, the United States and other western countries are highly vulnerable to terrorist activities.
In order to counter the terrorist activities, the western countries first need to fully understand the operations of the terrorism threats, both at the tactical and strategic level. The law enforcement and the intelligence services should be properly equipped with tools and technologies that can help them deal with the terrorists. Moreover, the western countries should heavily invest in counter-radicalization efforts that are effective enough to destabilize all the radicalization threats (Brandt & Sandler, 2009). Moreover, the west should not overlook the opportunities to infiltrate the jihadist networks and pay a close attention on how such networks utilize homogenous groups of foreign fighters.
References
Brandt, Patrick T., and Todd Sandler. 2009. Hostage taking: Understanding terrorism event dynamics. Journal of Policy Modelling 31 (5):758-778.
Cilluffo, F. J., Cozzens, J. B., and Ranstorp, M. (2010). Foreign fighters: Trends, trajectories, and conflict zones. The George Washington University, Homeland Security Policy Institute. Retrieved November 20, 2012, from: http://www.gwumc.edu/hspi/policy/report_foreignfighters501.pdf
Hoffman, Bruce. 2006. Inside terrorism: Revised and expanded Ed. New York: Columbia University Press.
We can write this or a similar paper for you! Simply fill the order form!
Meaningful Use for Nurses:
Implications and Recommendations
Guidelines with Scoring Rubric
Purpose
This assignment is designed to help students
• understand the implications for nurses, nursing, national health policy-making, patient outcomes, and population health associated with the collection and use of Meaningful Use core criteria.
Course Outcomes
Through this assignment, the student will demonstrate the following ability.
(CO 3) Examine the ethical/legal issues arising in NI practice while using, designing, managing, upgrading, and building information systems. (POs 4, 6)
Total Points Possible: 325
Requirements:
Provide an overview of the Meaningful Use program and an analysis of the implications for nurses, nursing, national health policy, patient outcomes, and population health associated with the collection and use of Meaningful Use core criteria. Recommend additional core criteria not presently identified for Meaningful Use collection in Stages 1 or 2 (lists of criteria may be found at cms.gov) that you feel would be beneficial for nurses, nursing, monitoring population health, setting national health policies, and/or improvements in patient outcomes or population health, providing your evidence for your recommendations. If you feel that no additional criteria are necessary, provide your evidence-based rationale for your argument. Conclude with insights gained from this assignment. A minimum of three outside scholarly resources are required—texts may be cited but are NOT included among the minimum of three outside scholarly resources.
PREPARING THE PAPER
1. Required texts may be used as references, but a minimum of three sources must be from outside course readings. No older than 5 years (preferably Scholarly Journals and peer reviewed)
2. All aspects of the paper must be in APA format as expressed in the 6th edition.
3. The paper (excluding the title page and reference page) is 5–7 pages in length.
4. Ideas and information from professional sources must be cited correctly.
5. Grammar, spelling, punctuation, and citations are consistent with formal academic writing.
SAMPLE ANSWER
Meaningful Use for Nurses
The healthcare system has been marred with several human errors that have led to the blame game within the system. Efforts have been made to achieve a culture of safety that protects patients from harm that has been caused by the care givers. Attempts such as patient centered care have been developed to the global goal of safety in health care. As such, exhaustive research of American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (ARRA) 2009 guaranteed that no high-quality health care will be realized without proper documentation of health records of patients (Chesnay & Anderson, 2012). Together with other institution of health care such as Health and Human Services attempts have been put to realize the goal of safety culture in health care is achieved. Therefore, by July 2010, these organizations issued Meaningful Use that is mandated to improve safety, quality, coordination, efficiency as well as engaging families and patients in electronic communication and recording of patients’ status. Therefore, the implementation of Electronic Health Recording (ERH) is one of the core factors of realizing the safety of individuals. A presentation of this paper gives an overview of Meaningful Use through HER and the implication it has on the health care system. The paper also identifies some of the recommendations for its full implementation.
Technology is the core factor that keeps individuals connected irrespective of where they are; hence, its usage in health care system becomes very important. Transferring health records and communication between the medical officers has been done using fax, emails, and phones (Chesnay & Anderson, 2012). However, through technology and serious concern of safety health care, there has been an attempt to use the electronic health records that is believed to be very efficient hence will reduce the occasional errors in health care system. The meaningful use is the set of standard that is developed by the center for Medicare and Medicaid services (CMC) which is mandated on paying providers who have achieved set criteria that are related to the meaningful use of technology to improve safety culture that finally improve patient care. ARRA act of 2009 signed this act into law that included funding the health information technology with $17 billion to physicians who have already adopted the use of EHRs (Chesnay & Anderson, 2012). The issue of funding this program aims at motivating institutions that have already employed the use of EHRs and encourage those who have not used the program.
The use of electronic health recording was aimed at achieving five goals according to health information technology and ARRA. First, it aimed at improving the quality, efficiency and safety of care as well as reducing the preventable disparities. Secondly, to engage both the patients and families in the process of health care. Third, is to facilitate and promote population and public health and improve the outcomes within the institution (Narcisse et. al., 2013). Additionally, it aimed at improving the coordination of medical officers and nurses within the health care. Lastly, this program is to promote the security and privacy of electronic health records since it is more secure than the old methods.
The meaningful use criteria were set to evolve over the next five years in three stages. The first stage is known as the data capture and sharing stage. It involves: capturing health information electronically and in a standardized method; using the information captured to track the key clinical conditions; communicating the found information for coordination processes; initiating clinical quality measures and health information; and using that information to engage the family and the patients in their care. The second stage, which was set to start in 2014, is known as advanced clinical process, which deals with health information exchange and increased need for e- prescribing and incorporation of lab results. The stage also deals with electronic transmission of summaries across several settings and more patient data. The final stage of the program, which is set to begin on 2016, is known as improved outcomes. Its main objective is to improve quality, efficiency, and safety that lead to improved outcomes.
From doctors to patients and everyone in between, the meaningful use will be of importance to change the way individuals’ documents materials. In order to meet the criteria developed by the CMS serious documentation is needed for everybody involved in patient care. The implication of meaningful use includes:
Impact of meaningful use on patient outcome will be very positive. The patients will have access to their health information through enhanced collaboration and engagement with their providers. This will also make the patient receive electronic reminders on follow up care of their health information. At the end, the patients experience the positive changes on how they interact with the system. According to CMS, about 190 million prescriptions have been done by electronic prescribing eRx, and 13 million patients receive reminders through electronic reminders (Halimi & Bassi, 2012).
Meaningful use are focused on helping nurses and doctors to make informed decisions, deliver good care, and create great efficiencies. These tools have prevented duplicative tasting, elimination, drug reactions, and have enhanced provider collaboration. Therefore through the use of the meaningful use the nurses and doctors have performed extremely well with minimal errors. For example in clinical lab results, about 458 million were entered into the system by 111,954 Eps and about 4.3 million transitions of care summaries were seen(Narcisse et. al., 2013). Because many lab results were entered into EHRs, millions of reconciliations were done, and millions of transitions of care sums were created, providers across the countries were also able to access much of the information about their patients, enabling them to give the right care at the correct time.
For national agency and public health, Stage 1 meaningful use menu objectives have encouraged providers to send several data to public agencies and numerous immunization registries. Stage 2 is believed continue to motivate the transmission of data to public health agencies and registries to inform care policy decisions making, drive perfect practices, and motivate the nation’s public health care. According to CMC Immunization registries received as a minimum of one test data compliance from 69,474 EPs. This information is transferred to the national health agency which can be used to manufacture some vaccines and know the trend of some diseases such as polio. Additionally, Syndromic Surveillance Data Submission also received a minimum of one test data compliance from 12,298 EPs (Halimi & Bassi, 2012). This shows that the system improves the care of patient even in places that they are not present hence their effects is really shaping the health care system from a blame system to a safety culture system.
For nursing, the system will help to make the public and patients believe that the nursing system and the entire health care system have improved by nurturing the safety culture. As such, that lost trust of continuous error will be regained. Thus, the entire health population will have the faith to believe that nursing sector is no longer a home to harm patients rather a place that foster the life of the sick. Halimi and Bassi (2012) note that when the trust is built, the entire population will believe on the nursing system.
One of the recommendations is that there should be a delay of stage two so that stage one is implemented fully. According to American Academy of Family Physicians (AAFP) the members cannot be able to handle the key factors that are needed for complying with stage two of the program by given deadline as at now. The factors include implementation, product services, training, and support. Therefore, it is important for the ARRA to extent the time frame of the initiation of the second stage so that the first stage is implemented fully using the required key components.
To implement this program fully until the final stage, there should be ease of meaningful requirements. Narcisse et al. (2013) say that the requirement of the system is over burdensome. He suggests that the possible way to move the program forward is to ensure that all providers are not left behind; especially, the small ones and the rural ones should participate too. The American hospital association suggested that the providers to meet the stage one by using 2011-certified or the 2014-certified, establishing a reporting period of 90-day in the first year of new stage for all providers, offering flexibility of the implementation for all providers, and extend each stage by at least 3 years since the program is not an easy one to employ.
The associations and ARRA should reconsider the penalties imposed on the physician when they happen to fail to perform their duties of implementing the program. Physicians are already having difficulties meeting the core and noncompulsory meaningful use measures in stage 1. Therefore, they will experience much difficulties in the proceeding phases especially the third phase of this program. According to organized medicine groups associations, the proposal would closely double the number of actions that the practices must meet for eligible patient happenstance to prevent Medicare penalties (Halimi & Bassi, 2012). Any failure even to meet one of the measures by about 1% would make physicians ineligible for enticements and experience the similar financial penalties at the penalty phase as the physicians who had not made any effort to practice EHRs.
Following the discussion herein, the push towards a safety culture in health care system has been the goal for the institution. Following research by various health care organizations, it was found that patient history recording and other documentation are vital factors to ensuring a healthy culture and safety in the health care. Therefore, the center for Medicare and Medicaid services (CMC) proposed use of EHRs to record information of the patients. The main aim of this program is to improve quality, efficiency, and safety that lead to improved outcomes. The program has three stages that were started in the year 2012 and are set to end in the year 2016. This system has impacted the outcome of patient by making the patient part of the care making them engage and contribute about their condition. It has also made the nurses and the providers to have informed decision-making since the system is accurate. Having known that the nurses are performing relatively well, the public have also gained a lot of trust on the nursing institution as a whole. The public and health care agencies have also received the information and the data have been used for immunization. However, there are some recommendations that should be looked at for proper implementation of the program. There should be low penalties on physicians who have not cooperated, the requirements too should be relatively easy, and there should be extension period before the second stage starts.
References
Chesnay, M., & Anderson, B. A. (2012). Caring for the vulnerable: perspectives in nursing theory, practice, and research (3rd ed.). Burlington, MA: Jones & Bartlett Learning.
Halimi, M., & Bassi, S. (2012). What does “meaningful use†mean for perioperative nurses?. OR Nurse, 6(4), 8-11.
Narcisse, M., Kippenbrock, T. A., Odell, E., & Buron, B. (2013). Advanced Practice Nurses’ Meaningful use of electronic health records. Applied Nursing Research, 26(3), 127-132.
We can write this or a similar paper for you! Simply fill the order form!
1-300 Abstract
2-introduction need to be paraphrased
3-methods need to be change the style of writing to scientific English in a style how methods of experiment is written
4- discussion you should write 2500 with 30 reference to support the interpretation of the graph
5-conclusion should be 200
6- references should be in Vancouver style
i need the work to be done on Saturday mid day ( Australian time)
SAMPLE ANSWER
DECLARATION
This final project report does not contain any material which has been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma and to the best of my knowledge and belief,contains no material written or published previously by another person, except where due reference is made in the text
Signed:
Date: 19 October 2014
Table of Contents
List of figures……………………………………………………………………..……………………4
List of Tables…………………………………………………………………………………………..5
List of Abbreviations…………………………………………………………………………………..6
ELISA is undoubtedly one of the extensively utilized biochemical techniques hence considered a routine procedure in most clinical laboratories. A combination of ELISA with other throughput technologies has significantly revolutionized the way laboratory procedures are conducted particularly those involved in purification of assays or analytes. Through development and validation of a competitive ELISA assay to measure levels of serum cortisol making comparison of the results obtained from ELISA with those obtained from the LCMS/MS, it is possible to conduct an evaluation of the highly reproducible, most reliable, highly accurate and sensitive method for the quantification of cortisol between the methods that are considered. Moreover, considering that there was need in this laboratory project to extract cortisol, then it can be highly justified that the laboratory project would definitely begin with the development of the technique to extract the cortisol which began by choosing the solvent to be used for the extraction of cortisol whereby ethyl acetate, hexane, and MTBE were considered and eventually the extracts were run on LCMS/MS. The project validated the techniques by evaluating the accuracy, sensitivity, linearity and imprecision for the ELISA. However, the linearity plot results indicated that that there was consistency between the linearity plot results with those of the calibration curve where the cortisol’s concentration in the upper limit was 750nmol/L. Thus, this implies that in spite of the ELISA’s performance been not very good for the considered analyte, a significant correlation was in existence upon comparing between the two methods.
Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) is undoubtedly one of the most used biochemical techniques hence considered a routine procedure in most research and clinical laboratories1. This is mainly because ELISA is a detection method that exploits the ability of antibodies to bind specifically and very tightly to a particular compound such as the antigens. The detection of the antibodies is done through a secondary antibody that is linked to a quantification or visualization strategy2. As a result ELISA has a wide usage in the diagnosis diseases and screening for the presence of some drugs in the body3. LC-MS/MS Chromatography is a method of separating components in a mixture based on the differences in partitioning behavior between a stationary phase and a flowing mobile phase2. Moreover, ELISA is usually combined with other biochemical analysis techniques which include liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS), has led to major breakthroughs in quantitative bioanalysis in biomedical sciences mainly because of the inherent sensitivity, specificity, and speed4. According to Lequin5 due to the above mentioned characteristics which are inherent in LC-MS/MS, the technique has received general acceptance as the preferred technique for the quantification of small molecule metabolites, drugs, as well as other xenobiotic biomolecules in biological matrices. Techniques that are liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) based have gained wide usage nowadays in the analysis of steroid serum. For instance, in the detection of serum aldosterone liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry (LC–MS) method is usually regarded an upper method1. However, LC–MS/MS technique should be used as a reference method because it mainly offers numerous advantages compared to GC-MS5.The aim of the experiment was to develop a competitive ELSA for serum cortisol to be acceptable standard essay and to validate Elisa assay by comparing with LC-MS/MS reference method.
CHAPTER 2: MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.1 Materials and Reagents
For sample extraction, Methanol and Ethyl acetate and Monoclonal cortisol antibody (5.4mg/mL) was used for labeling antigen.Tween20, Bovine serum albumin( BSA), Cortisol-1,2-d2 internal standard and Lumigen PS-atto (substrate)were used in this competitive ELISA assay and the rest of the materials used and their manufactures are provided in the appendix. For the purpose of diluting pure cortisol with 1000nmol/L Sercon was used. Cortisol Quality Controls samples were used with 3 different levels for testing the experiment reliability and acceptability. Cortisol sample was used by RCPA QAP general chemistry program and Endocrine program. The main equipment used in this experiment are Fume hood, Eppendorf centrifuge, vortex equipment for sample preparation.
Table 1: showing the all materials used and their manufacturers.
Materials
(manufacturer name, city, state)
1
Bovine serum albumin
Sigma-Aldrich, 3050 Spruee St ST. Luis, M063103 USA
2
Cortisol-1,2-d2 internal standard
CIDIN IsotopcpInc, 88 Leacock St Pointe-Claire, Quebec Canada
The main buffer used in this experiments were phosphate buffer saline (PBS), washing, coating and blocking buffer. Coating buffer was crucial for efficient immobilization. The pH was adjusted to be 9.6 as wrong pH can affect the assay. The reagents used in Coating buffer were made of 1M Na2CO3 the amount taken was 3.03g, 1M of NaHCO3the amount taken was 6.0 and 1mL of distill water. To make a 10 times concentrated phosphate buffer saline (PBS)buffer. The reagents used in 10X PBS buffer were Na2HPO3.12H2O (1.16g), KH2PO4 (0.1g), NaCl (4.0g), KCl (0.1g), distill water (500 mL) and the pH was adjusted to be 7.4.For removing the component that are not bound, washing buffer was used. The reagents used in washing buffer were 0.05% (v/v) of Tween 20 in PBS. Blocking buffer used as a blocker of non-specific protein-surface binding. The reagents used in blocking buffer 1% BSA (Bovine serum albumin) solution phosphate buffered saline (PBS), blocking and washing buffer. All these buffers were prepared to perform ELISA assay. The details of the buffer and their reagent are show in the table above.
2.3 Liquid extraction Protocol for ELISA
About 100 µL of unknown or control samples were put in labeled microfuge tubes followed by subsequent addition of about 100 µL of methanol and pulse vortexted for 2 minutes. After that about 100 µL of distilled water were added to the tube and vortexted for 2 minutes; this was followed by subsequent addition of about 800µL of Ethyl acetate and pulse vortexted for 5 minutes. The tubes were then centrifuged for 5minutes at 8000 rpm. This was followed by the transfer of about 500µL of the supernatant from each tube to new glass tubes and dried in 37C.
2.4 Sample Extraction Protocol for ELISA
About 100 L of the samples were added to each tube then 100 µL of methanol were added. The tubes were vortexing for 2 minutes and about 100 µL of distill water were then vortex for 2 minutes followed by addition of about 800µL of ethyl acetate then vortex for 5mins. All the tubes were then centrifuged at 8000 R.P.M for 5 minutes and about 500 µL of supernatant were transferred into clean tubes. The sample was dried at 37oC. Finally, the sample was reconstituted with 500 µL of PBS or ceracon.
2.5ProtocolLiquid Liquid extraction for LCMSMS
About 100 µL of unknown or control samples were taken in labeled microfuge tubes. The same amount of cortisol-1.2- d2 internal standard plus methanol solution was added and the tubes were pulse vortexted for 60 seconds. About 100 µL of distilled water were added to the tubes and vortexted again for 60 seconds followed by addition of about 500µL of ethyl acetate to the tubes and vortexted for 5 minutes. The tubes were then placed in the centrifuge and spanned at 1000 rpm for 5 minutes. About 200 µL of the supernatant was then transferred from each tube to new glass tubes and dried down with Nitrogen. The tubes were then reconstituted with 250 µL of 70 % methanol and were then vortexted for 20 seconds.
2.6 ELISA protocol
About 100 µL of monoclonal antibody were added to each well on the plate and the plate was then covered with parafilm and incubated at 37oC for 2 hours. The plate was blocked with blocking buffer incubated at 37 Cº for 1 hour. After that, the plate was washed 3 times with 200uL of PBST and rinsed 1 time with 200 µL of 1X PBS. Around 100 µL of extracted sample, control and standards were added to assigned wells then incubated for 15 minutes at 37Cº. About 100 µL of Cortisol-3-CMO( HRP) conjugate (1:10,000 dilution factor) followed by incubation for 1 hour at 37 Cº. The plate was washed with 200 µL of PBST 3 times followed and then rinsed once with 200 µL of 1X PBS. Lastly, 100 µL of lumigen which considered as substrate was added then followed by immediate detection of the signal39.
2.7 Method development of competitive ELISA assay
Three RCPA QAP samples low, medium and high samples along with Seracon as a blank were run on ELISA as per the protocol to obtain a response curve.
For the low sample the range was 80-08 (234 nmol/L), QC1: 40661 (127 nmol/L), Range = 107-147, QC2: 40662 (427 nmol/L), Range = 359-495, QC3: 40663 (937 nmol/L), Range = 787-1087
2.7.1Pipette Calibration (Accuracy):
The 4 pipettes that were used throughout the project were calibrated. The pipettes used were the 100 – 1000 µL and 20 – 200 µL. The percentage error was calculated following this equation –
%Error = [(Average Weight – 1.000g)/1.000g] x100.
2.7.2 pH of Buffers:
The pH of all buffers and consistency was checked (visual check). For example, Coating Buffer (pH=9.6), Washing Buffer (pH=7)and PBS (1X Buffer) (pH=7.4)
2.8 Methods Validation:
Method validation was done to ensure that the methods done in this experiment is fit for purpose after approving the effectiveness of the standard curve for the ELISA assay. The validation was performed by evaluating imprecision, linearity, sensitivity and finally the method was compared to LCMSMS. The QC materials used were from RCPA QAP.
2.8.1 Calibration Curve
Seven standards were prepared as described for calibration curve as shown in Table 1. Then all standards were extracted (Liquid-Liquid extraction with MTBE) and run on ELISA. The calibration curve was plotted using the Readerfit program.
Table 2. Seven Standards, their concentration and the final cortisol concentration
Standards
Concentration
Total Volume (μl)
Diluent Volume (µL)
Cortisol (µL)
1
0
100
1000
0
2
150
100
850
150
3
300
100
700
300
4
450
100
550
450
5
600
100
400
600
6
800
100
200
800
7
1000
100
0
1000
2.8.2 Linearity (Reportable range)
Using 2 pools one with low and the other with high concentration, five mixtures were add as shown in Table 2. These mixtures were run on ELISA in 4 replicates. The concentrations of the mixtures were obtained from the Readerfit program and this was used as the assayed concentration to plot the linearity plot using the Linchecker program.
Table 3. Preparation of the five mixtures for linearity
Mixture
Pool
Low pool (µL)
High pool (µL)
Total Volume (µL)
1
100% low
0% high
100
0
100
2
75% low
25% high
75
25
100
3
50% low
50% high
50
50
100
4
25% low
75% high
25
75
100
5
0% low
100% high
0
100
100
2.8.3 Imprecision (Within run)
Following the protocol, extraction was performed for both low and high samples and run on ELISA in 10 replicates. The mean, standard deviation and CV% were calculated.
2.8.4 Between run imprecision
The between run imprecision was calculated by evaluating the three Biorad QC samples run throughout the project. The Levey Jennings chart was plotted to determine the acceptability of the run.
2.8.5 Sigma chart
The coefficient of variation (CV%) and bias% obtained for the low and high concentration samples were used for the sigma chart to evaluate the performance of the ELISA. The formula of the bias metrics is as below:
2.8.5 Functional Sensitivity ( Limit of Blank, limit of detection, limit of quantitation)
The Seracon (cortisol free matched serum) was run in 10 wells (10 repeats). The mean and standard deviation were calculated and used in the following equation to calculate the Limit of Blank (LoB)
LOB = mean blank + 1.645(SD blank).
The low QC sample was used in 10 repeats and the following equation was used to calculate the Limit of Detection (LoD)
LOD = LOB + 1.645(SD low concentration sample).
A curve was plotted with the LOB and LOQ and the CV%, the concentration at which the CV=20% was used as the Limit of quantitation ( LOQ).
2.9.6 Method comparison with LCMSMS
The developed ELISA was compared to the LCMS/MS by running the RCPA QAP samples and the concentrations were obtained from the Readerfit and was compared to the concentrations of the LCMSMS using Passing Bablok and Bland Altman difference plot. The Method validator program was used to plot these plots. The purpose of this was to identify constant and proportional error.
CHAPTER 3:RESULTS
3.1 Selection of extraction solvent
Hexane, MTBE and ethyl acetate were run in LCMS and ethyl acetate was selected as the best solvent selected as it showed sharp peak and had high sensitivity. The chromatograms of the three solvents are shown in Figure 1.
MTBE
Hexane
Ethyl acetates
Fig. 1 The results of LLE extractions with different solvents. Hexan then ethyl acetate and MTBE. The x axis represents the time in minutes while the y axis represents the counts
3.2 Calibration curve
Calibration curves were obtained using the standard cortisol calibrators (34- 988 nmol/L) and were fitted using a nonlinear four- parameter logistic calibration plot using the Readerfit program.. The maximum asymptotic value was 505534.04 and the minimum asymptotic value was 505292.06. The value of inflection point was 7852.3 and the slope was -0.44. The QC1 and QC3 were in the reference range but QC3 was out of the range as shown in Table , which indicated that this experiment was not so successful. Further improvement was required.
Fig. 2 calibration curve showing the concentration of standard versus the absorbance plotted by readerfit software.
Table 4.The QC concentration from the calibration curve comparing them to the reference range for their assigned lot number.
The mean value obtained from graph
QC information
The reference range
QC1
128.50
QC1: 40661 (127 nmol/L)
Range = 107-147
QC2
359
QC2: 40662 (427 nmol/L),
Range = 359-495
QC3
405.87
QC3: 40663 (937 nmol/L)
Range = 787-1087
The QC1 and QC3 were in the reference range but QC3 was out of the range, which indicated that this experiment was not so successful. Further improvement was required.
3.2Impression: within run
Within run imprecision was determined by calculating the CV% for the low and high concentration samples. The CV % for the low and high samples was 15.4% and 65.8 % respectively. Table 5summarises the statistical data for the two samples
Table 5: Mean, SD and CV% for the low and high concentration samples
High values
Low values
Mean
611.5
Mean
655.9
SD
397.9
SD
100.9
CV %
65.8
CV %
15.4
3.5 Between run
The between run imprecision was assessed by analyzing the 3 QCs run across 5 weeks. This was done by plotting the Levey Jennings chart as shown in Figure 4 and analyzing in accordance with the Westgard rules. Only few values were acceptable for all the QCs. Most of the QC values were rejected as it was outside the +/- 2SD and +/- 3SD limits. This might be due to the random error and it can be corrected by repeating the assay or repeating the controls. With the level 1 QC, 3 runs was accepted as they fell within the 2SD ( yellow line). While in level 2 QC only two run were accepted as they fell within acceptable limit and not exceeding the 2SD or 3 SD. With the level 3 QC, only two runs were accepted and the rest of run were rejected.
Levey Jennings chart
Fig. 3 Levey Jennings plot: The green line is the mean, the yellow line represents the 2SD and the red line represents 3SD.
3.3 Sensitivity Test:
LOB = mean blank + 1.645 (SD blank).
= 117.3+(1.645*8.7389)
=131.7
LOD = LOB + 1.645(SD low concentration sample).
= 131.7 + (1.645* 100.9)
= 297.7
3.7 Precision profile:
The precision profile was assessed by evaluating the LOB, LOD and LOQ and the data is shown in Table and Figure
Table 6 :Concentration of LOB, LOD, high and low values and their CV%
Fig. 4 This graph represent the precision profile. The x axis represents the concentration of the target value while the y axis represents the CV%. From this graph LOQ was determined.
In this graph the low and high values were utilized. It was clearly shown the high value was 65.8% and it didn’t meet the imprecision and bias requirement however the low value did meet the bias and imprecision value as the CV% was 15.4% therefore, the assay isn’t fit for purpose. LoQ value that was determined from the graph was-132.1which is very low and not reliable value for LoQ as LoQ value must be close LOD or slightly higher8.
Removing the high value:
Fig.5 This graph represent the precision profile. The x axis represents the concentration of the target value while the y axis represents the CV%.
In this graph the low values only were utilized and high have been removed. LoQ was determined in this graph and it was 144.2 which is higher than LoD value. However, this graph is not acceptable so it didn’t include the low and high values together to check they meet the bias and imprecision requirement to conclude that assay fit for purpose or not.
3.4 Linearity
The linearity was evaluated by plotting the assigned and assayed concentrations and was found that the ELISA was linear with the upper limit of reportable range as 511 nmol/L with a best fit polynomial of y= 312.5 +0.6002x with an intercept of 0.6 and a slope of 312.5 nmol/L. The linearity plot is shown in Figure 3.
Table 7: Assigned and assayed concentration for the linearity plot
Fig.6Linearity plot. The x axis represents the assigned concentration ( the values obtained from RCPA QAP website) and the y axis represents the assayed concentration ( the values of
3.5 Method Comparison
ELISA was compared to the LCMSMS using Passing Bablok and difference plot. The comparison is shown in Figures7 and 8. The correlation coefficient was 0.804 with 1.56 slope of 1.56 and an intercept of -51. The difference plot showed a mean difference of 225nmol/L with a 95% confidence interval of 73.1 to 376.
Fig. 7This graph represent the Passing Bablok. The x axis represents the reference methods while the y axis represents field methods.
Difference plot showed the mean bias of 225 and 73.1 to 376 of 95% confidence interval.
Fig. 8 This graph represent the difference plot. The x axis represents the mean while the y axis represents difference.(The black line depicts the bias and the dashed lines show the 95% limits of agreement)
3.6 Sigma Metrics chart
Sigma chart was used to analyse the perfromance of ELISA using the bias and CV% for the low and high concnetration samples as shown in Table . The chart as shown in Figure 7 demonstrated that both the samples were unacceptable.
Table 8 : table shows the values used to draw the sigma Metrics Chart
This table shows the values used to draw the sigma Metrics Chart
CV %
Bias
low level
15.4
-0.66
High level
65.8
349
Fig. 9 This graph represent the sigma Metrics Chart. The x axis represents the CV % while the y axis represents the bias. Both values are not acceptable as they fall outside the acceptable range.
CHAPTER 4: DISCUSSION
Since the aim of the laboratory experiment was towards developing and validating a competitive ELISA assay for the measurement of the concentration levels of cortisol in serum and also making comparisons between the results obtained from the competitive ELISA with those obtained from the mass spectrometry TANDOM from the RCPA, it is evidently clear that by critically evaluating the two methods determination of the method which is the highly sensitive, highly reproducible, most reliable, as well as accurate and precise for quantitating cortisol concentration levels in the serum can be carried out.. This is mainly because cortisol serum concentration levels’ measurement require to be done with specificity that is extremely high even when the concentrations are significantly low for the monitoring of the steroid hormone levels in both research and clinical laboratories to make sure there is accuracy in diagnosis for appropriate treatment and follow-up.12. Thus, considering that the experiment needed cortisol to be extracted first it is very justifiable that the initial part of the experiment was to develop a technique that is ELISA based for cortisol extraction which started by the selection the solvents for extracting the cortisol where three of them were considered such as ethyl acetate, hexane, and MTBE and then the extracts were run on LC-MS/MS23.. However, amongst the considered cortisol extraction solvents ethyl acetate was eventually chosen as the extraction solvent that was most preferred mainly because it exists in a non-liquid matrix as well as due to the fact that it also exists an organic solvent and cortisol which was the target extract exists as an organic soluble steroid which means that in order for cortisol’s extraction phase which should be organic to be achieved ethyl acetate would only be the most preferred solvent for extraction. Moreover, extraction of cortisol using ethyl acetate is also advantageous due to the fact that it can be easily removed completely from the extract or cortisol when there is utilization of centrifugal vacuum devices24.
In order to succinctly determine the concentration of cortisol at any measurement ranging between the minimum and maximum concentration, a calibration curve was plotted using readerfit software utilizing the five parametric logistic calibration plots. Two blanks and seven standards and 3 samples of QCs were used to plot the curve. The calibration curve showed a working range of between 250nmol/Land about 750nmol/L. The results of the calibration curve implies that the ELISA method is capable of measuring cortisol within a range of the least concentration to highest concentration, that is, from the lowest concentration of 250 nmol/L to the highest concentration of 750 nmol/L.(5-12) Therefore, the plotted calibration curve can be very essential for the determination of the unknown concentrations of the sample solution in an experiment, since the sample solution is plotted against the observable variable on basis of their concentration and absorbance or the calibration standards of several prepared solutions. After plotting the calibration curve, unknown solution concentrations (which in this case are assumed to mean cortisol concentrations) can be determined upon placing the sample solution on the calibration curve mainly on the basis of its absorbance or on the basis of other observable variable.16 In this experiment, a calibration curve was vital for the determination of concentrations of cortisol at varied ranges of absorbance on the basis of other observable variable. (7-10, 17-20) The calibration curve is clearly showing high response values in low concentration. But, as the concentration increased the response values dropped. It is difficult to distinguish the concentration beyond 500nmol/L.
Furthermore, a consideration of the Levey Jennings chart was a clear indication that all the QCs did not effectively function its intended role due to the fact that the values for high and medium QC were undeniably within the limits which could be regarded as acceptable even though a consideration of the values for the low QC the Levey Jennings chart showed that they were undeniably not within the limits. 38, 39.
This clearly indicate that there was a considerably improved techniques for developing the assay, and the results that were obtained which could not be found to be within the present limits and/or ranges could have been attributed to a number of reasons which include some errors which are inherent in the process of experimentation particularly procedures such as those involved in the extraction of the cortisol, contamination of the extraction solvent and/or the extract as well as errors in pipetting. (11, 25, 27) Furthermore, the observed variations which may be considered to relatively considerable when compare to the expected limits and/or ranges may have also been as a result of the errors that may have likely occurred in course of the process through which the analyte and/or extract is labeled or transferred as well as errors that are inherent in the calibration deviations that are integral within the equipment and/or devices used for the measurements carried out during the laboratory experiment. Thus, this implies that the standard procedures that are previously laid down should be stringently adhered to during the laboratory experiment for the purpose of making sure that the obtained results are reliable, valid and can be reproduced.31
During the laboratory project there was also consideration of technique validation by evaluating the accuracy, sensitivity, linearity and imprecision for the ELISA technique in order to make sure it could be appropriately and effectively used for precise measurement of cortisol concentration levels28. In order to achieve this, the necessary protocols were stringently adhered to because it was regarded extremely crucial due to the fact that making conclusions and decisions concerning the validity and/or reliability of a certain procedure used to carry out scientific laboratory experiments13. For instance, according to Lequin5 clinical significant decisions could only be made regarding the analyte, whereby the degree of change that is detected is considered to the same as the total error that is allowable (TEa). 1 This implies that bias or accuracy indicates of disagreement between any two or multiple analytical methods and/or procedures used in the experiment which are under comparison. However, the systemic error that is detected for a particular method is recorded in terms of positive or negative bias. This implies that description of the recorded variations between the two or more methods being compared can be done using a coefficient of variation due to the fact that it usually provides a good idea with regards to the method and/or performance as well as the assay. 18 According to Lumsden18 a good method’s and/or technique’s performance is in most cases or always denoted by a CV (coefficient of variation) of below 5%; whereas whenever the CV (coefficient of variation) is equal or higher than 10%, this implies that the developed method’s and/or technique’s performance is not satisfactory. In addition, Yeh, Glock and Ryu13 reiterated that the upper limit of CV (coefficient of variation) for cortisol should be + 25% if the developed method’s and/or technique’s performance is good. However, the CV (coefficient of variation) for the results of the developed ELISA technique indicated that a CV (coefficient of variation) of 32% was obtained with a bias of 19 % for the higher sample and CV (coefficient of variation) of 24% and a bias of 20.7% for the lower sample. This is a clear indication that developed ELISA technique or method performance was not good or satisfactory for the analyte. Thus, in order for this analyte to be analyzed further, Sigma Chart or medical decision chart was used mainly because the achievement of the Six Sigma is undoubtedly the world class measure of the gold standard for the definition of quality. This means that performing an assay at the 3-sigma level, this is considered to be the minimum quality level acceptable; while when a method or an assay is below the 3-sigma level, adoption of a new better method needs to be implemented due to the fact that the quality of the test/analysis can’t be assured even upon repetition of the QC runs. 17 Thus, considering figure 9 in the results chapter it can be clearly seen that for this particular project the developed ELISA method or technique could not be accepted for both the levels based on the Sigma chart mainly because the sigma levels were considerably low.
In addition, the results obtained from the laboratory project were also utilized in the plotting of the linearity which with regards to observed results it can be clearly seen that the linearity of the ELISA extended up to 750 nmol/L meaning that 750 nmol/L was the upper limit for detecting cortisol. Therefore, the linearity plot results are clearly indicative of the fact that there was consistency between the results obtained from the calibration curve which also indicated that the upper limit at which concentration levels of cortisol could be detected was 750nmol/L. Thus, irrespective of the fact that the developed ELISA technique or method performance was not satisfactorily good for the detection of the analyte considered in this laboratory experiment/project which is cortisol, a clear evidence of considerably high level of correlation between the two measures for the analyte such as the linearity curve as well as the calibration curve is observable.30-32
Furthermore, the descriptions of the analyte’s lowest concentration was done in terms measures such as the sensitivity, functional/ analytical sensitivity, Limit of Blank (LoB), Limit of Detection (LoD) as well as Limit of limit of quantitation (LoQ) and there measurement cab achieved through an assay or through the method/techniques used. For example, LoB is indicative of the fact that 95% of the measurement values that are observed upon consideration of a Gaussian distribution, whereas LoD provides a method for the estimation of bias and imprecision when the analyte’s levels are at very low concentrations which implies that it is the lowest analyte’s concentration that can be distinguished from the LoB concentration levels which implies that when compare to LoB it should always be greater than LoB.11 However, when the obtained Gaussian distribution was considered, 95% of the analyte’s values were above the LoB while 5% of the analyte’s values were below LoB. Furthermore, a consideration of the LoQ means that it is lowest concentration level at which the measurement of the analyte can be done, but not detected at a point where the goals for bias and imprecision are met. Additionally, functional sensitivity was also considered which is a measure of an assay’s precision of measurement at low concentration levels of the analyte and in this project the functional sensitivity resulted in a CV (coefficient of variation) of 20%. Sometimes, the values for LoD can be equivalent to the values of LoQ but it can’t be higher. For example, if measurements the imprecision or bias of LoD are done within the TEa or total error that is allowable, LoQ can be equivalent to LoD.21 This means that when the results obtained in this project for LoB, LoD and LoQ are considered considerable insights can be gained concerning the biasness and imprecision of the method and/or analyte based on TEa or the total allowable error. Therefore, on the basis of the results obtained in this experiment, the LoQ is not equivalent to LoD, implying that the imprecision and bias doesn’t meet the total allowable error requirements. (9-12). The Sensitivity result was 131.7 using this equation LOB = mean blank + 1.645 (SD blank); whereas at the same the result for LOD was 297.7 using this equation LOD = LOB + 1.645(SD for a sample with low concentration of the cortisol).In figure 4showed the low and high values were utilized. It was clearly shown the high value was 65.8% and it didn’t meet the imprecision and bias requirement however the low value did meet the bias and imprecision value as the CV% was 15.4% therefore, the assay isn’t fit for purpose. LoQ value that was determined from the graph was -132.1which is very low and not reliable value for LoQ as LoQ value must be close LOD or slightly higher8. While in figure 5 showed the low values only were utilized and high have been removed. LoQ was determined in this graph and it was 144.2 which is higher than LoD value. However, this graph is not acceptable so it didn’t include the low and high values together to check they meet the bias and imprecision requirement to conclude that assay fit for purpose or not. The reason why the results was like this is because we used the concentration of target values instead of measured values instead of. LoQ was the lower limit of reportable range. The upper limit of this range we can get it from linearity.
The final part of the experiment was to make comparisons between the results obtained from the developed ELISA with the results which were obtained from the RCPA QAP by analyzing using the difference plot as well as the Passing Bablok. The results of Passing Bablok in figure 7 showed a regression with 1.56 slope and -51 intercept and the correlation coefficient was 0.804. While Difference plot in figure showed the mean bias of 225 nmol/L and 73.1 to 376 of 95% confidence interval, which meant that there was relatively low level of agreement between the RCPA from QAP and the developed ELISA technique or method which showed a mean difference of 225 nmol/L. (5, 22, 32)
CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION:
A satisfactory ELISA was developed, validated and compared to the LCMS/MS. There are many factors that should be considered when developing an assay such as the pH of the buffer, incubation time and temperature, extraction procedure, pipetting etc. Further studies should be performed to completely evaluate the performance of the ELISA by taking into account of these factors. Therefore, in clinical and research laboratories, this type of procedures are usually carried out on routine basis for the purpose of making sure comparisons between various methods or techniques used in the biomedical laboratories is done. Moreover, these procedure have also been extensively used as a protocol for the validation of a newly developed technique or method of analyte measurement in order to make sure that the obtained results are always reliable, valid and reproducible. Thus, as new methods continue to be developed on day to day basis in the biomedical field for utilization in the clinical and research laboratories, validation of these techniques must always be prioritized despite been throughput. Finally, routine comparison of various methods and/or techniques used in the same laboratory for measurement of a similar analyte should be encouraged in order to regularly determine which of them is producing more reliable, valid and reducible results.
Acknowledgement
I would like to express my gratitude to Dr. Ronda Greaves and Dr. Sonia La Vita for their supervising this experiment.
References
Bland, JM, Altman DG. Statistical methods for assessing agreement between two methods of clinical measurement. 1986;1:307-10.
Naxing RX, Leimin F, Rieser MJ, El-Shourbagy TA. Recent advances in high-throughput quantitative bioanalysis by LC–MS/MS. Review, Journal of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Analysis. 2007;44:342–55.
Passing H, Bablock W. A New Biometrical Procedure for Testing the Equality of Measurements from two Different Analytical Methods: Applications of linear regression procedures for method comparison studies in Clinical Chemistry, Part I. Clin. Chem. Clin. Biochem. 1983;21:709-20.
Lequin R. Enzyme immunoassay (EIA)/enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Clin. Chem.2005;51(12):2415–8.
Timothy VO. LC-MS in Drug Discovery, Director, Bioanalytical Research, Pharmaceutical Research Institute Bristol-Myers Squibb Company, lecture notes, University of Connecticut; 20 February 2007.
Crowther JR. The ELISA Guidebook: Totowa. NJ, USA: Humana Press; 2000.
Armbruster DA, Pry T. Limit of Blank, Limit of Detection and Limit of Quantitation. Biochem. Rev. 2008;29:49-52.
Wide L, Porath J. Radioimmunoassay of proteins with the use of Sephadex-coupled antibodies. Biochem Biophys Acta. 1966;30:257–60.
Farrance I. Approaches to the Study of Comparative Methodology. The Clinical Biochemists, Reviews, May 1980;4-9.
Furuyama S, Mayes DM, Nugent CA. A radioimmunoassay for plasma testosterone. 1970;16: 415–28.
Yeh CM, Glock M, Ryu S. An optimized whole-body cortisol quantification method for assessing stress levels in larval zebrafish. PloS one. 2013;8(11):e79406.
Schoenmakers CH, Naus AJ, Vermeer HJ, van Loon D, Steen G. Practical application of Sigma Metrics QC procedures in clinical chemistry. Clinical chemistry and laboratory medicine:CCLM / FESCC. 2011;49(11):1837-43.
Houts TM. The Advanced Precision Profile: An efficient tool for calibrating, characterizing and optimizing assay methods. A whitepaper discussing the mathematical and scientific aspects of the ProQuantTMsoftware product; 2012:1-7.
Middle JG, Kane JW. Oestrdial assays: fitness for purpose? Clin. Biochem. 2009;46: 441-56.
Lumsden J. Laboratory test method validation. Revue de Medecine Veterinaire. 2000;151(7):623-30.
Tu MB, Zhang X, Kurabi A, Gilkes N, Mabee W, Saddler J. Immobilization of beta-glucosidase on Eupergit C for lignocellulose hydrolysis. 2006;28(3):151–56.
Panteghini M. Traceability, Reference Systems and Result Comparability. Biochem. Rev. 2007;28:97-104.
Miller et al. Why Commutability Matters. Clinical Chemistry.2006;52(4):553-4.
Buhler R. Double-antibody sandwich enzyme-linked-immunosorbent-assay for quantitation of endoglucanase-i of trichoderma-reesei. Appl Environ Microbiol. 1991;57(11):3317–21.
Kolbe J, Kubicek C. Quantification and identification of the main components of the trichodermacellulase complex with monoclonal-antibodies using an Enzyme-Linked-Immunosorbent-Assay (Elisa) 1990;34(1):26–30.
Voller A, Bartlett A, Bidwell D. Enzyme immunoassays with special reference to ELISA techniques. J ClinPathol. 1978;31(6):507–20.
Twomey PJ. How to use difference plots in quantitative method comparison studies. Clin. Biochem. 2006;43:124–9.
Fraser T, Hyltoft P. Analytical Performance Characteristics Should Be Judged against Objective Quality Specifications. Clinical Chemistry.1999;45(3):321-3.
Riske FJ, Eveleigh DE, Macmillan JD. Double-antibody sandwich enzyme-linked-immunosorbent-assay for cellobiohydrolase-i. Appl Environ Microbiol. 1990;56(11):3261–65.
Turpeinen U, Hämäläinen E, Stenman UH. Determination of aldosterone in serum by liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry. Journal of Chromatography B. 2008;862:113–8.
Burns DT, Danzer K, Townshend A. Use of the terms “recovery” and “apparent recovery” in analytical procedures. Pure Appl. Chem. 2002;74(11): 2201–5.
Toscano I, Gascon J, Marco M, Rocha J, Barcelo D. Atrazine interaction with tropical humic substances by Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay. 1998;26(3):130–4.
Sturgeon CM, Viljoen A. Analytical error and interference in immunoassay: minimizing risk. Clin. Biochem. 2011: 1–15.
Krotzky A, Zeeh B. Pesticides report 33. Immunoassays for residue analysis of agrochemicals: Proposed guidelines for precision, standardization and quality control. Pure Appl Chem. 1995; 67(12):2065–88.
Mariquis P MedlabQC software, Biologiste des hopitaux, Metz-France 1999. ( stand-alone 3.21)
Mariquis P Method Validator software, Biologiste des hopitaux, Metz-France 1999. ( version 1.19)
Mariquis P MedlabQCswoftweare, Biologiste des hopitaux, Metz-France 1999.
Antimicrobial Agents
Antimicrobial agents are essential components in the treatment of various bacterial infections as they help to kill or prevent the growth of microbes such as bacteria, fungi, and protozoans. Prior to the discovery of antimicrobial agents, treatment options for patients with bacterial infections were limited. For many patients, treatment often resulted in the amputation of limbs or even death. Today, treatment options for bacterial infections typically have a more positive prognosis. Due to the various types of infections presented in patients, it is essential to be able to identify the underlying cause of the infection—whether bacterial or viral—before recommending drug treatments. This will help you identify whether or not an antimicrobial agent would be appropriate and which specific agent would target the infection. In this Assignment, you consider the appropriate use of antimicrobial agents for infections.
To prepare:
• Review this week’s media presentation on principles of antimicrobial therapy, as well as Chapter 8 of the Arcangelo and Peterson text.
• Consider the categories of antimicrobial agents.
• Think about differences between viral and bacterial infections.
• Reflect on why proper identification of the infection is key to selecting the proper antimicrobial agent.
To complete this Assignment Paper:
Write a 2-3 page paper that addresses the following:
1) Describe the categories of antimicrobial agents.
2) Describe differences between viral and bacterial infections.
3) Explain why proper identification of viral and bacterial infections is key to selecting the proper antimicrobial agent.
Readings/Recommended References (you may choose your own textbook or article for this paper
• Arcangelo, V. P., & Peterson, A. M. (Eds.). (2013). Pharmacotherapeutics for advanced practice: A practical approach (3rd ed.). Ambler, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
o Chapter 8, “Principles of Antimicrobial Therapy” (pp. 96–117)
This chapter covers factors that impact the selection of an antimicrobial treatment regimen. It also examines the clinical uses, adverse events, and drug interactions of various antimicrobial agents such as penicillin.
o Chapter 12, “Fungal Infections of the Skin” (pp. 141–149)
this chapter explores the pathophysiology of several fungal infections of the skin as well as related drug treatments and examines the importance of patient education when managing these infections.
o Chapter 14, “Bacterial Infections of the Skin” (pp. 158–172)
this chapter begins by examining causes of bacterial infections. It then explores the importance of selecting an appropriate agent for treating bacterial infections.
• Drugs.com. (2012). Retrieved from http://www.drugs.com/
this website presents a comprehensive review of prescription and over-the-counter drugs including information on common uses and potential side effects. It also provides updates relating to new drugs on the market, support from health professionals, and a drug-drug interactions checker.
SAMPLE ANSWER
Antimicrobial Agents
Antimicrobial agents are very crucial in treatment of various bacterial infections as they help to kill and prevent the growth of microbes such as bacteria, fungi, and protozoans. Treatment options for patients with bacterial infections were minimal prior to the discovery of antimicrobial agents. Before recommending a drug, a medical practitioner should identify the underlying cause of the infection. The following discussion will indulge to review varied categories of antimicrobial agents as well as providing differences between viral and bacterial infections. In conclusion, the paper will explain why proper identification of viral and bacterial infections is the key to selecting the proper antimicrobial agent.
There are varied categories of antimicrobial agents, including antibacterial drugs, antiviral agents, antifungal agents, and anti-parasitic drugs. In other words, the antimicrobial agents can be viewed through the mirror of the kind of inhibition they make. There is inhibition of cell wall synthesis, mostly attributed to antibacterial drugs, which target cells walls to selectively kill or inhibit bacterial organisms. Examples of antibacterial drugs include penicillin and bacitracin (Arcangelo & Peterson, 2013). Another kind of inhibition is inhibition of cell membrane mostly by antiviral agents, which are applied topically. Antiviral agents are used to protect cell membrane from allowing bacteria and viruses to enter these producers of intra- and extracellular fluids. Examples of antivirals include polymixin B and colistin (Drugs.com, 2012). They can also cause a cell to adapt the virus and start living with it for its survival. Antifungal agents, on the other hand, inhibit fungal cell division, for instance, polynes and azoles. Anti-parasitic agents are inhibitors of protein synthesis where they disrupt the normal cellular metabolism of parasites, and consequently lead to their death or inhibit their growth and multiplication.
In simpler terms, bacterial infections are caused by bacteria and these infections comprise of strep throat or urinary tract infections. Thormar (2011) argues that these kind of infections can be treated by antibiotics to fight off the bacteria. Most bacterial infections can become more complicated and severe. Illness like sepsis and bacterial meningitis are more of concern. Bacterial infections have the tendencies to result from secondary infections. For instance, sinus can result to sinusitis (Vaishnavi, 2013). Viral infections, on the other hand, are those infections caused by viruses and include chicken pox or common cold. Antibiotics or anti-viral medications cannot suppress entirely the effects of a virus on a patient suffering from common cold (Drugs.com, 2012). The appropriate medium to address viral infections is through vaccinations, especially to young ones. Over the counter drugs that can relieve the symptoms of a particular viral infection can also be recommended until the virus is able to run its course.
According to Vaishnavi (2013), proper identification of viral and bacterial infections is the key to selecting proper antimicrobial agent as it gives information about particular bacteria that has resistance to antibiotics. This is extended to the benefit that a medical practitioner is able to identify and treat a condition that has resulted from a viral infection to bacterial infection such as sinus. This is geared towards preventing the use of the right drug on the wrong condition. Another importance is that proper identification of viral and bacterial infections gives information in determining antimicrobial susceptibility of ineffective organisms (Thormar, 2011). This is because after a pathogen is cultured, its susceptibility to specific antibiotics serves as a guide in choosing antimicrobial therapy. For instance, some pathogens such as Streptococcus pyogenes and Neisseria have predictable pattern to certain antibiotics (Drugs.com, 2012). Most crucially, identification of viral and bacterial infection is important in determining the cost of therapy. Although several drugs may show similar efficacy in treating an infection, they can vary widely in cost.
In summary, there are different categories of antimicrobial infections. They work differently according to the kind of infection diagnosed. Identification of viral and bacterial infections will make a medical practitioner to know and prescribe an effective approach to the diagnosed disorder.
References
Arcangelo, V. P., & Peterson, A. M. (Eds.). (2013).Pharmacotherapeutics for advanced practice: A practical approach (3rd ed.). Ambler, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
An Example of an Ethical Dilemma and its Importance and Relevance
Order Instructions:
For this final part of the project, imagine that the CEO has asked HR to review the company’s policies. You have been personally asked to identify an issue you feel needs addressing, to evaluate different parameters for ethically deciding on how to address the issue, and then to evaluate various polices in order to propose a policy that the company can implement to addresses the issue you have chosen.
In completing this assignment:
• Describe an ethical dilemma and its importance and relevance.
• Identify the various stakeholders and their positions.
• Evaluate an ethical decision-making model, apply it to the chosen issue, and analyze options for resolving this ethical dilemma.
• Recommend a corporate policy for resolving the issue and support the recommendation with well-reasoned analyses and specific examples, including the impact on the various stakeholders.
• Recommend a policy that resolves the ethical dilemma and support the recommendation with well-reasoned analyses and specific examples.
• Analyze and recommend a strategy for communicating the policy to the organization in a manner that meets the needs of the audience.
• Specify potential limitations of the policy and strategies for monitoring and compliance.
SAMPLE ANSWER
An Example of an Ethical Dilemma and its Importance and Relevance
Within the business or organizational context, ethics involves making decisions, which align with the sense of wrong and right alongside various policies. Effective handling of ethical dilemmas in organizations is significant in ensuring that businesses meet their objectives (Vieito, 2012). One of the ethical issues that should be addressed in the company is discrimination. Since the organization is dominated by male employees, female employees experience problems such as inappropriate remarks from their male colleagues. Addressing this aspect is significant in ensuring that the organization achieves a coherent task force, which is vital in driving the company towards its success.
Identification of Various Stakeholders and their Positions
Stakeholders who are linked to this ethical dilemma are management, directors, employees and HR. The management is in charge of ensuring that all employees work towards the realization of an environment, which is free from discrimination. This goal can be accomplished by appointing supervisors to monitor the behavior of workers in relation to the aspect of gender discrimination. Moreover, the management’s position in relation to this issue is to implement a policy, which is aimed at get rid of the issue of gender discrimination witnessed in the firm (Dalton et al, 2014). Employees’ position is to ensure that they act in line with the organization’s policy on gender discrimination. Director’s role will involve conducting reviews the policies such as the gender discrimination policy, which have been proposed by the management, and making necessary adjustments to such policies. The HR’s role will be to offer adequate training to employees in relation to the issue of gender discrimination in workplace and its negative effects.
An Ethical Decision-Making Model, its Application to Gender Discrimination and Options for Resolving this Dilemma
Ethical decision-making takes into consideration the making of choices based on what is appropriate/good for all individuals. One of the frameworks that can be employed in handling the gender discrimination problem in the firm is the golden rule. Golden rule is based on the precept that an individual should treat other people in relation to how he or she would want to be treated (Vieito, 2012). As such, the application of this approach in addressing the aspect of gender discrimination in the company will be successful as all employees, management and stakeholders will treat each other with equality regardless of their genders. Implementation of this model in decision making will involve the formulation of decisions that takes into consideration the interests of all genders in the company.
The aspect of gender discrimination can also be solved by placing members of different genders in separate departments or workstations. However, this approach is ineffective as it does not take into consideration the various skills that are possessed by workers. For instance two individuals of different genders may possess skills in handling a similar task. As such, separating them might result into an employee being assigned a duty in an area in which he or she is not skilled (Dalton, et al, 2014). Moreover, this approach can lead to the intensification of gender discrimination in the firm due to rivalry between genders.
A Corporate Policy for Resolving the Issue
One of the most appropriate corporate laws that can be employed in resolving discrimination in the company is the policy, which advocates for the treatment of all employees with equality regardless of the gender to which they belong (Dalton et al, 2014). Implementation of this policy in the firm will help in ensuring that employees do not engage in issues of gender discrimination due to the fear of legal consequences associated with such actions. As such, the company’s management will manage to get rid of this problem.
Policy that Resolves the Ethical Dilemma
As one of the ethical issues affecting the company’s progress, discrimination can be avoided by implementing a policy, which requires all employees to undergo a reward-based sensitivity training on ethical issues such as discrimination, and those employees who demonstrate a high sense of concern for gender equality to be rewarded (Vieito, 2012). This policy will ensure that employees are made aware of the negative effects of discrimination on employees and company’s productivity. Moreover, the incorporation of the aspect of reward in this policy will ensure that workers are motivated to fight gender discrimination in the organization.
Strategy for Communicating the Policy to the Organization
Communication of this policy will take into consideration all stakeholders and management. The first process of communicating the policy will involve a consultation with the company’s management for necessary adjustments. The policy will then be taken to the firm’s board of directors for review. The management will then inform employees about this policy and its significance to the organization and workers via a meeting and notices. The last process will involve the implementation of the policy. Prior to the implementation of this policy, the company’s management will have to seek the views of employees on this regulation with the aim of identifying areas that need adjustments (Vieito, 2012). In this manner, all stakeholders and employees will feel as part of the process of implementing the policy.
Specific Potential Limitations of the Policy and Strategy for Monitoring and Compliance
One of the limitations of this policy is that it does not take into consideration the aspect of punishment, which is significant in discouraging ill acts such as gender discrimination. As such, employees may be tempted to involve in such actions as there are no punishments associated with them. The effectiveness of this policy will be determined by conducting internal surveys on the firm’s employees. These surveys will be done after every three months, and they will focus on issues concerning gender discrimination in the work place (Vieito, 2012). In relation to this, the policy will be considered effective when cases of gender discrimination register a declining trend. On the other hand, when the organization seems to continue witnessing cases of gender discrimination, the policy will have to be reviewed.
Industrialization After the Civil War Thesis and Outline
Order Instructions:
Industrialization After the Civil War Thesis and Outline
Paper instructions:
After the Civil War, the United States became a much more industrialized society. Between 1865 and 1920, industrialization improved American life in many ways. However, industrialization also created problems for American society. Consider events that took place after the Civil War and discuss ways that industrialization affected the U.S. between 1865 and 1920.
For the first part of this assignment you will create a thesis statement. A thesis statement is usually a single sentence somewhere in your first paragraph that presents your main idea to the reader. The body of the essay organizes the material you gather and present in support of your main idea. Keep in mind that a thesis is an interpretation of a question or subject, not the subject itself. (Note: Please consult Stanford University’s Website with tips on how to construct a proper thesis; the website can be found at: http://www.stanford.edu/~steener/handouts/thesis.htm
For the next part of this assignment you will create an outline of the main points you want to address in this paper. This outline will serve as the basis for your Assignment 1.2 Final Draft. (Note: Please use the Purdue Owl Website to assist you with this assignment;this website can be accessed at: https://owl.english.purdue.edu/engagement/2/2/55/
Part 1:
1. Write a thesis statement that is one to two (1-2) sentences long in which you:
1.State you opinion on how industrialization after the Civil War influenced U.S. society, economy, and politics. Justify your response.
Part 2:
1.Determine three (3) major aspects of industrialization during 1865 and 1920 that influenced U.S. society, economy, and politics. (Consider issues such as geography, entrepreneurship, legislative representation, etc.)
2.List five (5) specific groups that were affected by industrialization. Provide two (2) examples for each group describing how the group was affected. (Consider issues such as race, ethnicity, gender, child labor, etc.)
3.List five (5) ways that industrialization affected the life of the average working American during this period.
4.Use at least three (3) quality references. Note: Wikipedia and other Websites do not quality as academic resources.
Your assignment must follow these formatting requirements:
•Be typed, double spaced, using Times New Roman font (size 12), with one-inch margins on all sides; citations and references must follow APA or school-specific format. Check with your professor for any additional instructions.
•Include a cover page containing the title of the assignment, the student’s name, the professor’s name, the course title, and the date. The cover page and the reference page are not included in the required assignment page length.
The specific course learning outcomes associated with this assignment are:
•Identify and discuss the different ways that the Civil War, Reconstruction, and Industrialization after the Civil War have shaped America’s history.
•Summarize and discuss the ways that formal policies of government have influenced the direction of historical and social development in the United States.
•Recognize the major turning points in American history since the Civil War.
•Use technology and information resources to research issues in contemporary U.S. history.
•Write clearly and concisely about contemporary U.S. history using proper writing mechanics.
SAMPLE ANSWER
Essay Outline
The American civil war had great impact on American history since it resulted to industrialization during 1895-1920. Both negative and positive results was borne from the American industrialization that cut across the political, the social, and economic divide. The three major aspects of industrialization during 1895-1920 that influenced U.S. are social, economic, and political. Economically, the industrialization led to the expansion of business activities and increase in trade. Socially, the lives of workers were greatly affected due to poor working conditions and minimum wages. Politically, industrialization resulted into more political groupings and voting power among the various segments of the population.
The five specific groups that were affected by industrialization are: Farmers (were poor slaves and work on farms in extreme hard conditions, and agriculture changed from agrarian to industrial); women (did not hold jobs, were caretakers, could not vote but afterwards obtained the rights to vote and office jobs); immigrants (associated with lower wages and were and discriminated in the workplace); wealthy (rich keeps becoming richer in expending businesses and getting favors from legislators) and politicians (associated with greed, bribery, favoritism and at the same time passed legislations in favor of women rights, ending slavery and promoting labor rights for workers.)
Five ways that industrialization affected the life of the average working American during this period: Many farmers left agriculture and went for industrialized jobs. Invention of machine in factory industry made less demand of people. Women could find jobs in office setting and have the privilege of voting right. Farmers were extremely poor, worked long hours and underpaid and resulting in death. Freed slaves began to seek education rights and demand for proper working conditions.
Industrialization also resulted to negative consequences such as environmental degradation, social misfits, monopoly of certain businesses, and increased greed of human beings.
Industrialization in America after the Civil War
The American civil war is one of the most significant events in the American history since it gave birth to industrialization. Industrialization after the Civil War had both negative and positive consequences to the American society, economy, and politics. This is because significant development was realized as well as drawbacks in the political, economic, and societal set-up as a result of industrialization. This paper discusses the three major aspects of industrialization, the five groups that were affected by the industrialization, and the ways in which industrialization affected the life of average working Americans during that period.
During the Civil War, the Americans fought against themselves leading to great destruction of property and loss of lives. After the fierce fight, the nation was united and this led to several developments since they learned from their mistakes. The American slaves were set free after the war and the federal government started to facilitate reconstruction of their economy in various sectors. Following the industrialization in America, no stone was left unturned and a lot of changes were hereby made that still affects the living conditions of the present day Americans.
The industrialization in the United States was very pronounced and affected both the political, social and economic aspect of the American citizens (Adams, 2014). Due to increased productivity the Americas economy began to change since people could now complete their jobs in their homes due to high growth in the country’s economy. The economy also changed through the factory system which allowed a large amount of work to be completed in one location, resulting in employment of several people into the factories. Society also changed through two major transitions during the revolution which entailed Americans stop farming practices and going to get better jobs in the factories. The revolution ended up affecting politics since politicians were now concerned with expanding their business interests instead of dedicating themselves to the needs of the poor people in the country (McCrary, 2014).
Several groups were directly and indirectly affected by the industrialization that took place after the American civil war. Immigrants were highly affected by the industrial revolution in America since they were associated with least wages in addition to being discriminated in the workplace. Women and farmers were all affected by the industrial revolution era in various ways that disrupted their conventional way of doing things (Bead, 2013). It was after the civil war that women had jobs to do; they worked as car takers of different homes to earn a living and to support their families. To some extent, the industrial revolution was beneficial to women since they were able to obtain privileges like having the right to vote and to participate in active politics. Due to the industrial revolution, farmers were highly affected since the Americans stopped being an agricultural land to being an industrial country. Before the industrial revolution, farmers had cheap labor of slaves obtained from Africa, but this stopped following the end of civil war and the beginning of the industrial revolution (Moneyhon, 2002).
The workers formed the center stage of the American industrial revolution and were greatly affected by its effects. Following the industrial revolution, American workers were affected in a way that their wages were reduced, they worked for long hours and their working conditions were very poor. It was very worse to an extend some workers even lived in the same place where they worked despite working in an overcrowded area with poor working conditions. More immigrants who arrived in America sought for education, including the freed slaves from America highly needed education which was positively affected by the industrialization era. In order to better America, people who arrived in the country also had to get the basic education to learn English which was a great challenge. On the other side, blacks while enslaved and were not taught how to speak English or to interact freely with the rest of the American citizens as democracy would demand. The revolution also had effects on the side of the living conditions where many people had to migrate to live near the factories so that they could be considered for jobs that were available in those factories (McCrary, 2014). Moreover, there was an increase in population near the factories and many houses were built very close to one another leading to the development of slums.
Steel became an important component of the industrial revolution since it was a major material that was used by the industrialists to make their new inventions and to reinforce their machinery. In addition, steel was a very important metal during this era since it was easier to make, easier to mine, and lighter than iron (Beard, 2013). For transportation purposes, the metal formed an important component for rail transport system since it was used to construct the railroads and the component of the train body and engine. The railway lines formed important routes, apart from roads and seaways, for transporting raw materials from the mining areas to their destinations. The railway lines mostly relied on the gravity and horse since the engine system was not well developed to support the movement of very heavy loads. The railway lines worked on the principle of reducing friction to the lowest minimum so that one horse can pull several tons of loads with ease. The railroads also facilitated the free movement of people and goods from one place to another leading to improved trade. The living standards of people changed drastically since the industrial revolution enabled people to receive quality goods and services due to technological advancements (Moneyhon, 2002).
The industrial revolution is also characterized by the production of petroleum through coal mining. Coal became an important component of the industrial revolution since it was able to burn and produces more energy than wood and this provided enough energy to run the steam engines. Coal provided enough energy needed by the people to move their heavy goods by train, road, and sea transport. Coal mining became a booming business during the industrial revolution era due to its high demand to further industrial pursuits in all parts of the world. Before coal mining, the United States was an industrial laggard but this changed after coal mining since the United States quickly overtook countries such as Germany, Great Britain, and France (Moneyhon, 2002).
Industrial revolution also enabled most persons to enjoy the power of electricity in their homes and at their industries. This ultimately led to the discovery of the incandescent lights that enabled the Americans to extend some of their activities at night. The middle class was greatly affected by the discovery of electricity since they were able to receive the motion pictures. In addition, it affected the telecommunication industry and the telephone conversations since people in distant places could easily be reached by information. Industrial revolution also spurred more innovation, leading to the discovery of the bell. In terms of construction, new architectural designs were formulated, leading to construction of strong and reliable bridges and road designs (McCrary, 2014). Due to increased innovation, new food conservation methods were devised that reduce the level of agricultural wastage. Moreover, industrial revolution resulted in the creation of more business opportunities leading to the expansion of financial institutions. The women were thus able to get jobs and salaries that they use to sustain their families. Industrial revolution also resulted in the importance of politics in the United States since people started to appreciate the importance of bargaining power. The political developments led to advocacy for slavery rights, the rights of women, and the labor rights for thousands of workers.
Despite the positive developments, industrial revolution also led to several negative consequences both to the people and to the environment. Increased mining of fossil fuels and mineral elements that supported various processes of industrial revolution resulted in environmental degradation. Social misfits such as child labor laws, reduced salaries and wages, and monopoly resulted from the industrial greed of human beings (McCrary, 2014).
To conclude, living conditions were not that comfortable due to the high number of people migrating to live in cities. The way of life, government, and everything were affected by the revolution which had both the positive and negative impacts, hence molding America to be a first world country to date. This in turn led to political divisions that were used by political leaders to pursue their own selfish course. It is thus true that the industrial revolution in America after the civil war had both negative and positive impacts and it affected various groups of people and various sectors of the economy.
References
Adams, M.C. (2014). Living Hell: The Dark Side of the Civil War. Prentice Hall
Beard, C.A. (2013). History of the United States. Create Space Independent Publishing Platform.
McCrary, F. (2014). American History: The Good, The Bad and The Ugly. Oxford University Press.
Moneyhon, C. (2002). The Impact of the Civil War and Reconstruction on Arkansas. University of Arkansas Press.
We can write this or a similar paper for you! Simply fill the order form!
Applying Ethical Decision-Making Models to Guerrilla
Applying Ethical Decision-Making Models to Guerrilla
Order Instructions:
As mentioned in previous weeks, Cooper’s ethical decision-making model and Waldo’s Map of Ethical Obligations assist responsible public administrators in assessing and addressing the ethical dilemmas that they will confront during their careers. Public administrators must consider all underlying factors of a dilemma and the potential solutions in order to ensure the most proper outcome. Sometimes the chosen outcome may involve actions that serve to work against the wishes of superiors in the organization.
For this Assignment, review the case study in the text, “Guerrilla Government in EPA’s Seattle Regional Office.” Identify an ethical issue within this case study. Consider the competing obligations and responsibilities that these individuals faced and how they determined whether their actions were right. Also, think about the impact of guerrilla government on the political appointees, organization, and public policy.
The Assignment (3–4 pages in APA format): Your paper should include the following:
A description of the ethical issue you identified in the “Guerrilla Government in EPA’s Seattle Regional Office” case study
A description of the issues the political appointees faced in this case and an explanation of federal ethics law violations
An explanation of why you think the career employees were motivated to use guerrilla tactics as a solution despite the risks to their careers (e.g., competing obligations) and whether their choice of guerrilla action was ethical
An explanation of how these actions affected the organization and public policy
A description of the actions leaders within the EPA might have taken to manage guerrilla government and an explanation of how those actions might have changed the outcome of the situation
An evaluation of the potential lessons for public administrators and the importance of these lessons
Note: If you are more familiar with life in a nation outside of the United States, explain the potential lessons for public administrators in that nation.
Support your Assignment with specific references to all resources used in its preparation. Provide a reference list with all resources included in the paper.
Your Assignment must demonstrate both breadth and depth of knowledge and critical thinking appropriate to graduate-level scholarship. It must follow APA Publication Manual guidelines and be free of typographical, spelling, and grammatical errors. The assignment should be 3–4 pages in length (double-spaced), not including the title page, abstract, and references.
SAMPLE ANSWER
Applying Ethical Decision-Making Models to Guerrilla
Abstract
Guerrilla governments refer to actions of public servants who operate against the wishes of their administrators. This paper explores the creation and development of guerilla governments and their impact on the organization and public policy with regard to the “Guerrilla Government in EPA’s Seattle Regional Office” case study. The paper further describes the actions that the administrators in the case study might have undertaken in order to manage the guerilla government and how these actions could have changed the situation. Lastly, the paper provides an evaluation of the potential lessons for public administrators and the importance of these lessons.
Applying Ethical Decision-Making Models to Guerrilla
A description of the ethical issue you identified in the “Guerrilla Government in EPA’s Seattle Regional Office” case study
When President Reagan came to power in 1980, he made drastic changes in the federal government. His purpose and mission was to reduce too much control by the government in the private enterprise (Lash, Gillman & Sheridan, 1984). He was of the view that the previous bureaucratic government had destroyed the American industry with too much regulation. After appointing Anne Gorsuch as the administrator of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, the two handpicked regional administrators for the EPA who had similar beliefs. John Spencer a good friend of Gorsuch, and Robie Russel were among the appointed regional administrators, and they perfectly illustrate the subtle and sophisticated authority of guerilla government and some conditions for the emergence of a guerilla government (O’Leary, 2014).
The guerilla government discouraged accountability and responsibility for actions done by some government employees such as Spencer. Spencer misused public funds and used his official position to further his own personal interests. Despite repeated warnings by career staff in his respective Management Division that his personal expenditures using taxpayer’s funds violated federal guidelines, Spencer continued to misuse the funds. In addition, Spencer violated environmental laws and disregarded complaints from environmentalists. Spencer also failed to enforce environmental laws as vigorously as possible despite EPA officials’ complaints that there were potential threats to the City of Kent’s water supply. Russel also embezzled public funds and violated environmental laws. He refused to accept the allegations lodged against him and maintained that he had brought badly needed change to the EPA (O’Leary, 2014).
A description of the issues the political appointees faced in this case and an explanation of federal ethics law violations
Political appointees had problems with controlling and monitoring the actions of the regional administrators due to the fact some of them feared acting on baseless grounds. For instance, when the director of the Management heard of a complaint about Spencer’s misconduct, he feared acting contrary to Spencer’s wishes due to the fact that he viewed Spencer’s misconduct as a privilege and a duty of government employees when they see wrongdoing to turn it in (O’Leary, 2014, p49). Another challenge that the employees faced was reassignment and demotion by the administrators. Spencer reassigned and demoted the director of the Management Division due to the fact that he repeatedly warned Spencer that he was violating procedures and misusing public funds.
EPA officials also faced strong influence from administrators who forced them to violate laws and ethical values. For instance, in the pulp mill case, Spencer forced the EPA staff to release confidential information provided by ITT-Rayonier to two of ITT-Rayonier’s competitors. Gorsuch misappropriated the EPA budget, demoralized the EPA staff and alienated Congress through her refusal to furnish the investigation committee with information in the agency’s Superfund program. Gorsuch also caused many appointees to be hired, fired, or promoted on grounds of their political positions (O’Leary, 2014, p53). Russel excluded his deputy administrator from meetings, which compelled the deputy to use guerilla tactics to raise his concerns.
An explanation of why the career employees were motivated to use guerrilla tactics as a solution despite the risks to their careers (e.g., competing obligations) and whether their choice of guerrilla action was ethical
Engaging in guerilla was not ethical due to the fact that it exacted personal costs to the self-esteem of the career staff. Though there are people who feel self-righteous to engage in guerilla, the fact that it compromises with loyalty and straightforwardness makes it unethical. Nevertheless, these career staff employees abandoned these ethical values due to the motivation that they were serving a greater good. Their acts were inspired by the urge to save human lives out of a love of humanity and they believed that there was no formal medium for them to express their concerns and solve the ethical and legal issues confronting them (O’Leary, 2014).
An explanation of how these actions affected the organization and public policy
Guerillas run the risk of being unregulated themselves. In some cases, guerillas fail to see the big picture and they promote policies which are incompatible with the system as a whole (Katz & Kahn, 1978). In other cases, guerillas making officers more consumed in fulfilling their own expensive and instrumental purposes instead of the purposes of the organization. Guerillas affect public policy due to the fact that they send different confusing messages to the public, thus creating a negative impression (O’Leary, 2014).
A description of the actions leaders within the EPA might have taken to manage guerrilla government and an explanation of how those actions might have changed the outcome of the situation
The leaders should have promoted an organizational culture that allows and encourages open dialogue and debate. Cultivation of a questioning attitude through encouragement of staff to challenge organizational assumptions fosters innovation and creativity. Leaders should also have learned to listen to the words and the language of dissent from the employees, and this could have helped in providing a platform for discussion and coming up with effective solutions. It is also important for leaders to understand the organization both formally and informally. This gives the leader an opportunity to embrace any proactive changes and to make objective, professional judgments when conflicts arise. Lastly, the administrators should have learnt to separate the people from the problem as this fosters objectivity in decision-making (Fisher, Ury & Patton, 2011).
An evaluation of the potential lessons for public administrators and the importance of these lessons
The case study shows that there are tendencies for decision makers and other stakeholders in an organization to become blinded by their own feelings and thoughts concerning dissent due to the fact that they majorly concentrate on their own careers, perspectives and programs as lone beings. Being too concerned with one’s own tasks and feelings makes one unable to see the other side of the dissent. Administrators should understand that guerillas will always exist and the earlier they learn to deal with them the better (Balfour, 2007).
References
Balfour, D. L. (2007). Book Review: Guerillas in Government? The Ethics of Dissent: Managing Guerilla Government. The American Review of Public Administration, 37(1), 114-116.
Fisher, R., Ury, W. L., & Patton, B. (2011). Getting to yes: Negotiating agreement without giving in. Penguin.
Katz, D., & Kahn, R. (1978). The social psychology of organizations. NY: Wiley. KatzThe Social Psychology of Organizations1978.
Lash, J., Gillman D., & Sheridan. D. (1984). A Season of Spoils: The Reagan Administration’s Attack on the Environment. New York: Pantheon.
O’Leary, R. (2014). The Ethics of dissent: Managing guerrilla government (2nd ed.). Chapter 3, Cq Press.
We can write this or a similar paper for you! Simply fill the order form!
Please type all answers. Page numbers. Bibliography. No title page. You can have as many sources as you want. I put down a minimum of (6) sources however, that?s just a minimum. If you need to add more, please do so. Answer All Questions and Clearly Define Your Terms Place your answer to each question on a separate sheet of paper and type answers to all questions. Document your answers and show your work. Read each question carefully and answer all parts. The number in parentheses is the point weight for the question. Make sure you label your questions, ex. 1.) A:, 1.) D: ?. And so on. You may add another page for graphs or figures. Number each page and clearly indicate the question number.
(50) 1. (a) Aggregate Demand is defined as:
AD = C + I + G + NX
Where AD is aggregate demand, C is consumption expenditures, G is government (federal and state and local) expenditures, and NX is net exports (Exports ? Imports).
To encourage the growth of AD, fiscal policy can influence G through changes is expenditures, such as the fiscal stimulus of 2008 and 2009, and on C by changes in transfer payments such as Medicaid, Medicare, unemployment benefits and Social Security that change disposable income. If such changes take place, how are they transmitted to increase both GDP and employment? When are they least effective and most effective in changing GDP and Employment? Has the large fiscal stimulus in 2009 had the benefits that Congress and the Administration had anticipated?
(b) Suppose the Fed has already decided that it wants to target the money stock.
(1) Will the Fed come closer to its target by setting the interest rate at a given level, or will it do better by fixing the money supply through open market operations? In your analysis, think in terms of the Fed’s horizon from one Open Market Committee meeting to another — about 4-6 weeks. This analysis involves the relative stability of money demand and the money multiplier. Consider two alternative cases: (1) a stable demand for money allows the Fed to set an interest rate that ensures it will come close to the target money supply; and (2) an unstable demand for money.
(2) In your analysis, discuss the proposition that the Fed may need to target interest rates in the short run in order to meet its target money stock while in the long run it may need to pay attention to interest rates and bank reserves and currency growth. NOTE: Shifts in money demand may reveal themselves first in movements in interest rates — and if the Fed wants to stabilize the economy, it should respond to shifts in money demand.
(c) Within the same general context, discuss why the Fed, if it wants to stabilize and grow GDP and employment, has chosen a quantitative easing (QE) approach by growing bank reserves though purchases of Treasury securities and mortgage-backed securities and the monetary base rather than an interest rate policy (presently QE2 policy is to purchase $85 billion per month of Treasury and mortgage-backed securities? Why has the European Central Bank (EU) and Japan followed the same policy? How does this process work to stimulate economic growth? Has the QE policy since 2011 worked to increase GDP growth and employment?
(d) In the case of a liquidity trap, what is it that makes monetary policy ineffective in such a case? Recall that effective monetary policy requires that banks lend to willing borrowers. What does it mean for an effective monetary policy if the velocity of money declines substantially?
Velocity (V) = Price Level (P)*Real Output (Y) / Money Supply(M)
V = P*Y/M2
Or to look at it another way: P*Y = V*M2
So a change in M2 will lead to smaller changes in P*Y the smaller is V.
(50) 2. There are many views of the state of the global economy in the late Summer early Fall of 1998. Below are some of these views. From your reading of Commanding Heights (Yergin and Stanislaw), current news accounts, research into various economies and Macroeconomics (Dornbusch and Fischer), critically analyze these statements as to the type of policies that national economies and the IMF should pursue over the course of the next few years. Has the free market system of capitalism failed and the “battle between government and the marketplace that is remaking the modern world” (Yergin and Stanislaw) tilting toward government? Or, is there a middle ground that needs to be reached with a global regulatory structure created that makes countries and their financial systems more transparent and less tied to “crony capitalism”? Express your views, but back them up with fact and supporting argument.
The Economist (September 5, 1998) “The World Economy on the Edge: The risks of a deep global recession are increasing. But it can be avoided so long as policymakers heed some lessons from history.”
The Economist (September 5, 1998) “The Economist all-items commodity-price index has fallen by 30 percent since mid-1997, to its lowest level in real terms for over 25 years. The prices of industrial commodities are now at their lowest in real terms since the 1930s. This has severely hurt commodity producers, not just in Latin America and Africa, but also in Australia and Canada.” (add in the U.S. farmers).
The Economist (September 5, 1998) “Capitalism in retreat? A related and more worrying backlash against the free markets is the increasing interest on the part of politicians and economists in market intervention or capital controls as a solution to the crisis…..On September 1st, Malaysia imposed strict controls on capital movements. And respected American economists are also now arguing the virtues of capital controls. This, he (Paul Krugman) suggests, would break the link between domestic interest rates and exchange rates to get their economies growing again….Indeed, the biggest risk now to the world economy may lie not so much in a deep recession, which could be averted. It is that there may be a wholesale retreat for free markets.”
Robert Kuttner (Washington Post, September 7, 1998, p. A25) “Free Markets and a Free Fall World Economy. Economic reconstruction after World War II accepted the necessity of a mixed economy. In that era, the United States and the International Monetary Fund recognized that emergent economies could no be the prisoners of private speculative capital. The postwar system regulated private money flows and stabilized currencies to allow nations to develop. Today’s IMF, perversely demands exposure to speculators as a precondition of assistance….What we need is a program of stabilization and reconstruction in the spirit of the post-World War II years, with limits on speculative money flows and more development aid.”
Washington Post, December 22, 1997, p. A1) “IMF Credibility Is on the Line In Asia Bailout, Agency Should Rethink Rescues, Some Critics Say, ‘Since the time the IMF has signed each Asian bailout program, the respective Asian currencies have continued to plummet,’ said Jeffrey Sachs.”
Jeffrey Sachs (The Economist, September 12, 1998, p. 23) “Global Capitalism, Making It Work. “Global capitalism genuinely is the best chance for the developing world to gain a foothold on the economic-growth ladder; but with current institutions, global capitalism will not succeed widely enough or credibly enough to create a stable world system…. The IMF bought into the investment bankers’ mantra: exchange-rate stability above all else…. The more these economies tried to defend their currencies, the more they incited panic.”
George Soros (The Wall Street Journal, September 15, 1998, Op. Ed) “The Crisis of Global Capitalism. …there remains the urgent need for Congress to authorize an increase in the capital for the IMF….Bailouts did encourage foolish behavior by banks and other lenders, which could count on the IMF when a country got into difficulties (a moral hazard problem). But, the moral hazard now operates in the opposite direction, in not enabling the IMF to do its work when it is most needed.”
Henry Kissinger (Washington Post, October 5, 1998, p. A21) “Perils of Globalism, The IMF is no longer suited for dealing with economic crises. The IMF must be transformed. It should be returned to its original purpose as a provider of expert advice and judgement, supplemented by short-term liquidity support…. Regulatory systems should be strengthened and harmonized; the risks that investors are taking should be made more transparent.
John Maynard Keynes, 1931 “We are today in the middle of the greatest economic catastrophe of the modern world…the view is held in Moscow that this is the last, the culminating crisis of capitalism and that the existing order of society will not survive it.” As quoted in The Economist (September 5, 1998), page 19.
(15) 3.) The growth accounting equation is (Y is aggregate GDP in real terms):
Growth rates of K (capital) and N (labor) are weighted by their respective income shares, so that each input contributes an amount equal to the product of the input?s growth rate and their share of income to output growth. The ? indicates the change in the variable.
Growth Accounting Equation In Per Capita Terms:
(a) Define the notion of steady state equilibrium for the economy that is the combination of per capita GDP (y) and per capita capital (k) where the economy will remain at rest, or where per capita economic variables are no longer changing OR
In steady state, at what rate will GDP (Y) grow?
(b) Explain why, in the Neoclassical growth model, an increase in the savings rate does not increase the growth rate of per capita output in the long run.
(c) Explain why:
(1) An increase in the rate of growth of the population, n, reduces the steady state level of k and y
(2) An increase in n increases the steady state rate of growth of aggregate output
and
(1) A decrease in n increases the steady state level of k and y
(2) A decrease in n decreases the steady state rate of growth of aggregate output.
SAMPLE ANSWER
Question one
Fiscal policy
Fiscal policy is a combination of the policies of the government spending that influence a country’s macroeconomic conditions. Therefore, through fiscal policy, unemployment rates are improved, control inflation is controlled, business cycles are stabilized and interest rates are influenced by regulators in an attempt to control the economy (Dornbusch & Fischer, 1994).
Therefore, changes in government expenditures and consumption expenditures are likely to significantly influence the rate at which the GDP grows. For instance, increased government expenditures both state and federal means that the funds are either invested or directed into improvement of the infrastructure especially construction of more highways for improved movement of goods or increasing electricity supply which ensures that both companies and individuals can produce goods with ease (Krugman & Wells, 2006). As a result more companies tend to be created meaning that the GDP is eventually increased. This implies that additional government (state and federal) expenditures lead to increased GDP, creation of job opportunities as well as lowering of the unemployment rates. This a clear indication that government expenditures are directly proportional to the GDP, whereby an increase in government expenditures results to an increase in the GDP while a decrease in government expenditures results to a decrease in the GDP. A combination of increased government expenditures with increased GDP subsequently boosts production and demand as well as reducing the rate of unemployment.
Alternatively, a decrease in the consumption expenditures also translates to increased GDP and employment mainly because it reduces the proportion of funds the government consumes and which cannot be invested or directly used to improve the investment environment for both local and foreign investors. Moreover, the changes in government expenditures are most effective when a balance is achieved between the government expenditures and consumption expenditures. For example, when the government expenditures are increased and directed towards improving investment environment or invested while at the same time ensuring that consumption expenditures are maintained low (Krugman, 1990). On the other hand these changes are least effective in changing GDP and employment sometimes because the government usually obtains all its funds from the taxes i.e. from the productive activities’ of the private sector. Moreover, these changes are also perceived to disproportionately affect particular groups where, for instance, increased government expenditures greatly influence the group where the spending is directed, which in the case of government spending on building highways construction workers are significantly influenced (Krugman & Wells, 2006).
Even if not all the benefits anticipated by Congress and the Administration were accrued from the large fiscal stimulus in 2009, there are significant benefits that were achieved. According to Bartlett (2010) the entire stimulus package resulted to 2.8% real GDP growth in the third quarter as well as employment of between 600,000 and 1.6 million people as a result of the stimulus package. The stimulus package was also found to have benefits in terms of transfer payments and tax cuts, for example, tax cuts for individuals in the low-income group raised the GDP by $1.70 for every $1 or revenue loss; whereas the tax cuts for the corporations and the rich raised the GDP by about 50 cents for every $1 or revenue loss (Bartlett, 2010).
Money stock
The Fed would come closer to its target by fixing the money supply through open market operations because the targeted supply of money is not directly related to the interest rate. Therefore, this means that an increase in the quantity of produced goods and/or the price level increases, there will be an outright increase in the demand for money. However, if there is a decline in the economic activity and/or prices go down, then there will be an outright decrease in the demand for money. The money supply through open market operations means the demand for money is unstable which implies that the interest rate cannot be set at a certain level (Krugman & Wells, 2006).
The Fed may need to target interest rates in the short run in order to meet its target money stock while in the long run it may need to pay attention to interest rates and bank reserves and currency growth. This is mainly because the interaction between the quantity of supplied and demanded money is the one which determines the interest rates. This is mainly because when the interest rate is too high, then people will purchase bonds meaning the money will definitely be reduced. However, a greater demand for the bonds reduces the interest rates which push them towards the equilibrium (Krugman & Wells, 1989).
Quantitative Easing (QE)
In order for Fed to stabilize and grow GDP and employment, quantitative easing (QE) approach by growing bank reserves though purchases of Treasury securities and mortgage-backed securities and the monetary base should be the most preferred approach rather than an interest rate policy (Krugman & Wells, 2006). This is mainly because the banks target the supply of money by either selling of purchasing government bonds which results to promotion of the economic growth eventually lowering short-term interest rates while at the same time increasing money supply. As a result of this, the European Central Bank (EU) and Japan have followed this policy since its acts as an easy way through which money supply can be increased and also short-term interest rates can be lowered (Duncan, 2009). However, quantitative easing (QE) policy usually promote economic growth mainly because it targets private sector assets and commercial banks which encourages the banks to lend money which is then invested to meet the demand created by the increased purchasing power. QE policy has significantly worked since 2011 to increase GDP growth and employment because more money has been available at low short-term interest rate which is then invested leading to increased GDP growth and employment (Krugman & Wells, 1989).
Liquidity trap
In the case of liquidity trap, a monetary policy becomes ineffective on either the level of income, or the interest rate hence making it powerless to affect the interest rate. This situation occurs because the general public is willing to hold on to the amount of money supplied, at any particular rate of interest mainly due the fear of foreseen adverse events such as war or deflation. Moreover, monetary policy may also be ineffective when the interest rate is zero meaning that the general public will not be willing to hold any bond but the money in which zero percent interest rate is also accrued, but with an advantage of being usable in transactions (Krugman & Wells, 2006).
When the velocity of money declines substantially it means that there is very little money in circulation that is used to buy goods and services meaning the economy becomes less robust. So an effective monetary policy will definitely increase the interest rate in order to encourage people to release the money they are holding which eventually results to an increase in velocity of money thereby making the economy vibrant again (Krugman & Wells, 2006).
Question two
There are different types of policies that national economies and the IMF should pursue over the course of the next few years in order to effectively tackle the problem of global economy. For instance, in order to stabilize the international financial system crisis prevention as well as crisis mitigation policies need to be implemented by national economies and the IMF (Krugman & Helpman, 1985). However, the IMF needs to implement other policies which are aimed at addressing the problem of global economy entirely including implementing stringent policies on surveillance, information provision, and technical assistance in order to collaboratively contribute to the prevention of crises. Moreover, the IMF should also implement policies that encourage lending in support of an adjustment program of a country in order to eventually contribute to the mitigation of crises (Sachs, 1998; The Economist, 1998).
Considering the free market system of capitalism and how it operates nowadays, it is evident that it can not be sustained for long (Dornbusch & Fischer, 1994). For instance, free market system in capitalism is perceived to be an exploitative system where the workers are paid peanuts at the expense of companies to make large profit margins (Sachs, 1998; Yergin & Stanislaw, 1998). Moreover, nowadays we cannot attribute the existence of the “free market” mainly because gigantic corporations that are in possession of immense power dominate the market through unfair competition. In addition it is also evident that this system disregards many ethical issues in pursuit of demand and supply hence it only works in the short-term while hurting the economies in the long-run (Dornbusch & Fischer, 1994; Soros, 1998). Therefore, the current free market system in capitalism is ineffective mainly because of its vicious cycles of deflation and inflation that in most cases tend to be very difficult to control. Furthermore, the free market system in capitalism encourages non-recycling of large sum of the GDP back into the economy, thus leading to unemployment as well as a very unstable CPI (Soros, 1998; Yergin & Stanislaw, 1998).
The battle between government and the marketplace that is remaking the modern world seems to be tilted towards the side of government mainly through government regulations, tariffs as well as other infringements on pure system of free market (Yergin & Stanislaw, 1998). Thus there has been emphasis on the futility of utilizing monetary policies that are inflationary by the governments in order to influence the rates at which the economy grows. Moreover, this battle has continued through income tax reforms and policies through expansion of rebates tax write-offs, and subsidies as a way of titling the markets (Yergin & Stanislaw, 1998).
In order to have effectively working global economy there needs to be adoption of alternative to the free market system in capitalism which would encourage smaller governments with tighter price controls alongside increased minimum wage in helping to solve some of the CPI problems (The Economist, 1998). Thus, free market system in capitalism needs to be blended with other systems such as the socialism and collectivization, in the attempts of creating a fairly decent economy without vicious cycles of deflation, inflation, financial crises as well as unemployment (Kissinger, 1998).
Question three
A steady state economy is an economy structured to balance economic growth with population growth whereby it seeks to find equilibrium between population growth and production growth. In a steady state economy the rate of GDP growth should be equal to the rate of population growth (Krugman & Wells, 2006).
In Neoclassical growth model the reason why an increase in the savings rate does not increase the growth rate of per capita output in the long run is because a higher saving rate does result in a higher steady-state capital stock and a higher level of output mainly because there is no investment in technology and labor which are two significant factors attributable to long-term growth rate of per capita.
An increase in the rate of growth of the population, n, reduces the steady state level of k and y because the population is growing at a rate higher than the rate at which the GDP and per capita are growing eventually failing to sustain them causing them to reduce (Krugman & Wells, 1989).
An increase in population increases the steady state rate of growth of aggregate output mainly because the output of the entire population is considered. Hence since increased population provides labor then the aggregate output is increased (Krugman & Wells, 2006).
A decrease in population increases the steady state level of k and y because the country produces more than it consumes and the surplus is used to invest in technology eventually increasing the GDP and per capita.
A decrease in population decreases the steady state rate of growth of aggregate output mainly because there is a decrease in labor which is most significant factor attributable to aggregate output (Krugman & Wells, 2006).
Kissinger, H. (Washington Post, October 5, 1998, p. A21) “Perils of Globalism: The IMF is no longer suited for dealing with economic crises”.
Krugman, P. & Helpman, E. (1985). Market Structure and Foreign Trade: Increasing Returns, Imperfect Competition, and the International Economy. Massachusetts: MIT Press.
Krugman, P. & Helpman, E. (1989). Trade Policy and Market Structure. Massachusetts: MIT Press.
Krugman, P. (1990). Rethinking International Trade. Massachusetts: MIT Press.
Krugman, P. & Wells, R. (2006). Macroeconomics. New York, NY: Worth Publishers.
Kuttner, R. (Washington Post, September 7, 1998, p. A25) “Free Markets and a Free Fall World Economy. Economic reconstruction after World War II accepted the necessity of a mixed economy”.
Soros, G. (The Wall Street Journal, September 15, 1998, Op. Ed) “The Crisis of Global Capitalism”.
The Economist (September 5, 1998) “Capitalism in retreat? A related and more worrying backlash against the free markets is the increasing interest on the part of politicians and economists in market intervention or capital controls as a solution to the crisis”.
The Economist (September 5, 1998) “The Economist all-items commodity-price index has fallen by 30 percent since mid-1997, to its lowest level in real terms for over 25 years”.
The Economist (September 5, 1998) “The World Economy on the Edge: The risks of a deep global recession are increasing”. Retrieved on 13th October 2014 from: http://www.economist.com/node/163310
Washington Post, (December 22, 1997, p. A1) “IMF Credibility Is on the Line in Asia Bailout, Agency Should Rethink Rescues”.
Yergin, D. & Stanislaw, J. (1998). The Commanding Heights: The Battle for the World Economy. London: Free Press.
We can write this or a similar paper for you! Simply fill the order form!
Interaction of these agencies when preparing for, responding to, or recovering from Domestic Acts of Terrorism.
Order Instructions:
The intent and purpose of this Module is to familiarize the student with other agencies that are involved with Domestic Security and Terrorism. There are too many agencies to present; therefore, I request the student read their missions and histories.
Students are encouraged to deviate from the posted readings and look at the provided DHS organizational chart, seek the charts from the Department of Health and Human Services, the Military, the State Department, and the Justice Department to find out more. The organizations of the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) and Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) are deliberately left out because the students should cover both of these agencies in depth in other classes. The Case questions concern the interaction of these agencies when preparing for, responding to, or recovering from an act of domestic terrorism.
The student is required to cover the required readings and apply the information provided combined with the student’s research to answer the following questions:
1. Do you agree/disagree with Thurston’s views on the role of the military in Domestic Terrorism? Why? (Thurston, 2007)
2. Explain the interface of CDC and DHS in a domestic bio-terror incident.
3. How would FEMA and the FAA integrate with the DHS, TSA, and Military if a domestic terror incident occurred similar to the events of September 11, 2001?
4. After reading (Haddal, 2010) what do you envision the role and success of the Border Patrol will be in the next five years?
5. In your view (supported by research and citation), do you believe the reorganizations of the first decade of the 21st century to combat domestic terrorism were/are effective? What changes would you recommend and why?
The following items will be assessed in particular:
1. Your ability to apply your understanding of the roles of the assigned agencies in combating domestic terrorism and their interrelationships.
2. Your ability to express the effectiveness of the changes in the entire spectrum of homeland security as applied to domestic terrorism.
3. In-text references to the modular background readings (APA formatting recommended) and a reference page. Outside background reading sources encouraged and expected.
Length: This Case Assignment should be at least 3 pages not counting the title page and references.
References: At least two references should be included from academic sources (e.g. peer-reviewed journal articles). Required readings are included. Quoted material should not exceed 10% of the total paper (since the focus of these assignments is critical thinking).
Organization: Subheadings should be used to organize your paper according to question.
Academic Source, Required readings:
ATF Home Page, Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives website: Retrieved November 15, 2012, from: http://www.atf.gov/
Brinkerhoff, J.R. (2009). The role of Federal military forces in domestic law enforcement title. US Army Combined Arms Center, Newsletter 10(16), Ch. 11. Retrieved November 16, 2012, from: http://usacac.army.mil/cac2/call/docs/10-16/ch_11.asp
Haddal, C. C. (2010). Border security: The role of the U.S. Border Patrol. Congressional Research Office. Retrieved November 15, 2012, from: http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/homesec/RL32562.pdf
Vision, mission, core values, and pledge: CDC vision for the 21st Century (2010). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved November 15, 2012, from: http://www.cdc.gov/about/organization/mission.htm
SAMPLE ANSWER
Do you agree/disagree with Thurston’s views on the role of the military in Domestic Terrorism? Why? (Thurston, 2007)
I agree and support Thurston’s views as presented in his article ´The Military’s Role in Domestic Terrorism´, on the role of the military in deterring, combating and providing assistance in instances of domestic terrorism in the US. He asserts that to effectively counter acts of home-grown terrorism, there is need for a concerted effort between the military and the civilian security forces. This is because protecting the lives of Americans is mandatory and the state should use all the resources at its disposal, including the military, to protect the citizens from any acts of terror. This is clearly spelt out in the National Strategy for Homeland Security, NSHS, of 2007. It states in part that ´´…the United States will use all instrument of national power and influence, diplomatic, information, military, economic, financial, intelligence, and law enforcement, to achieve our goals to prevent and disrupt terrorist attacks; protect the American people…” The supportive role of the military is especially relevant in situations where the civilian police is widely overstretched or overwhelmed, and so the troops act as a force multiplier. This makes the use of the troops domestically, not to be a question of choice, but of necessity. The military’s role should however, as Thurston purports, not be a leading role but a supportive role since while they may have more airpower and substantial personnel, they do not necessarily possess the relevant training to effectively deal with domestic terrorism. This is true because the military are prone to using excessive force that may harm civilians. To counter this, they should be provided with relevant training in dealing with domestic terrorism. Their participation in countering domestic insurgents should also be short lived and their involvement halted once a situation can ably be handled by the civil police (Thurston, 2007).
Explain the interface of CDC and DHS in a domestic bio-terror incident.
The twenty first century has witnessed an increase in bio-terror attacks such as the release of anthrax virus. Bio terrorist use disease causing agents such as viruses and bacterial to harm or kill people and animals by deliberately releasing them in the environment (Jones D., 2005) Both the Centre for disease control, CDC and the Department of Homeland Security, DHS, have a significant role to play in combating bio terror in the American soil. The CDC has the role of preventing and controlling bio terror, through such activities as detecting infections, conducting research on vaccines and controlling the spread of diseases such as small pox and anthrax, so as to promote the health of the public. CDC relies so much on DHS as it is the source of intelligent imminent attack so that the CDC can be put on high alert. This cooperation is vital as it can avert a possible terror incident or alleviate the effect of a bio terror as a result of information sharing. The DHS also works in partnership with relevant agencies to provide emergency support to CDC in case of a bio terror incident. This partnership between CDC and DHS helps in combating, controlling and even eradicating germs used as terror weapons. Just like the mission of CDC is to protect the lives of Americans through promotion of health security by swift response to health concerns, so does DHS, through its various departments that are created to respond to bio terror attacks.
How would FEMA and the FAA integrate with the DHS, TSA, and Military if a domestic terror incident occurred similar to the events of September 11, 2001?
The DHS is adequately prepared in instances of emergencies through the Federal Emergency Management Agency, FEMA. Federal Aviation Agency, FAA, and FEMA are components of the DHS. FEMA enhances disaster preparedness and provides emergency response during terror attacks that cannot be avoided, such as the September 11 attack, by reducing the impacts of a domestic terror attack and ensuring that Americans do not become victims of terror. FEMA does this by encouraging quick recovery of those affected by acts of terrorism. FAA is also under DHS and it is majorly concerned with enhancing security in the aviation industry through enhancement of screening of passengers as well as cargoes, enforcement of immigration laws so as to reduce the risk of passenger attack. In the event of terror incident similar to the September 11 attack, the DHS shall mobilize FEMA to enhance emergency services to the citizens while the FAA and TSA would be on high alert to boost security at the airport to prevent explosives from entering the country or attackers from escaping, and ensuring general aviation security as a key infrastructure. This shall be enhanced by the deployment of the military to provide support to the civilian police in restoring calm and order, and strengthening entire security of the state. The department of home homeland security shall coordinate all these agencies’ efforts since it has the overall mission of providing security in the home land.
After reading (Haddal, 2010) what do you envision the role and success of the Border Patrol will be in the next five years?
The United States Border Patrol, USBP, as I envision it in five years, shall consolidate its role of protecting the states border points. Because of its expanding budget and fund allocation, the USBP will be in a better position to install more advanced and secure surveillance gadgets in both its northern and the porous southern borders. The border patrol agents, who also have an important role of not only detecting, but also deterring illegal migrants and terrorists, will be equipped with advanced skills since the huge budget allocation will facilitate training of border agents. Other shortfall such as lack of clear statistics on issues related to the border, such as availability of data on illegal migrants, and number of border agents attacked will be, in future, consolidated and more accurate statistics provided by border agents. There shall also be a consolidated integrated border enforcement team in the northern border of Canada to exert joint efforts in enhancing border patrol and security.
In your view (supported by research and citation), do you believe the reorganizations of the first decade of the 21st century to combat domestic terrorism were/are effective? What changes would you recommend and why?
The 21st century has seen extensive overhaul of the security system and agencies involved in combating domestic terrorism and this was necessary if war on terrorism was to bear fruits. These new reorganizations, especially in the Department of homeland security, have drastically improved the level of preparedness of the state. The changes introduced are very effective since there is now a department solely focused on ensuring security in the homeland and its borders (Haddal, 2010). The effectiveness has been especially achieved through the establishment of various departments and agencies that even deal with emergencies such as FEMA, by ensuring that citizens do not become victims or terrorism. Information sharing among departments and the various relevant agencies has also enhanced their cooperation, hence, improving on effectiveness and raising more public awareness on terrorism. Effectiveness is also seen since there has never been a major attack in the country since September 11 and security has been beefed up in the aviation industry (Elias, 2009). Again, numerous plots of terrorist attacks in the U.S. soil have been foiled since the reorganizations and this indicates the effectiveness of such reorganizations
However, the reorganizations will make do with some crucial recommendations such as:
Security alert should be strengthened. The thwarted terror attacks indicate that US is still a target for terrorists and as such increased intelligence to detect any possibility of terror in US soil should be adopted.
There should also be a clear way in which the military and the civil police can work together to combat domestic terrorism. This should be in place to avoid confusions during a joint task force.
The federals states need to establish a wider pool of volunteers as these will provide ready response to disaster and increase preparedness. This is because the local civilians can respond rapidly and assist each other after an attack before the federal can organize itself.
There should be integration between the local and state efforts that are geared towards countering acts of terror.
With these in place, the risks of terrorist attack within USA will drastically be reduced. It is impossible to totally avoid the threats of terror attacks but stringent and practical measures as detailed in the DHS can be adopted and implemented to keep America safer.
References
Haddal, C. C. (2010). Border security: The role of the U.S. Border Patrol. Congressional Research Office. Retrieved November 15, 2012, from: http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/homesec/RL32562.pdf
Elias B., (2009). National Aviation Security Policy, Strategy and Mode-specific Plans. Background and Considerations for Congress.
Jones, D. (2005). Structures of Bio-terrorism Preparedness in the UK and the US: Responses to 9/11 and the Anthrax Attacks. British Journal Of Politics & International Relations, 7(3), 340-352. doi:10.1111/j.1467-856X.2005.00189.x
Please pay attention to details hear and respond to all the question in details. and most important it is critical that the writer focus on the points mentioned at the end of the questions . all aspect must be thoroughly address in the paper.
Marketing in the 21st Century
Once again, you will utilize articles listed in the Resources section to explore the different topics for your Research Paper. Below, you will find a series of questions pertaining to each article. You do not have to answer the questions directly, but they are included to guide you in discovering the type of information that you need to complete the research paper.
After reading “Retail Marketing Trends in USA and Their Effects on Consumers and the Global Workforce,” and “Internet Retailing Quality: One Size Does Not Fit All,” consider the following questions:
• What should online retailers do to establish a clear difference from retailers that have off-line stores?
• What should be the strategies for retailers with physical locations that intend to also establish themselves online and how should these retailers seamlessly integrate their channel offerings?
• How has globalization influenced marketing trends?
Using the information you have read and any other outside resources that you have found, prepare a summary (2 pages minimum) of how these topics relate to the overall subject you are addressing in your paper. Remember to refer back to the main task of this paper, which is to describe how you believe the usage of the individual marketing mix variables is likely to change in the future and what companies must do to adapt their marketing approaches in order to achieve competitive advantage.
In particular, focus on the following aspects:
• The changing landscape of traditional advertising methods that have become less effective as consumers turn to the Internet from mass media and the evolution of newer pricing models for the Internet, including the use of channel intermediaries as retailers seek to compete with pure-play Internet retailers.
Marketing changes and adaptations that have become necessary due to the globalization of the marketplace.
Resources
Articles
• Chinta, R. (2006). Retail marketing trends in USA and their effects on consumers and the global workforce. Business Renaissance Quarterly, 1(2), 65–80. Retrieved from ProQuest Central database.
This article identifies and describes current trends in the field of retail marketing,
• and sets them in the context of significant changes in the field in recent years.
Griffiths, G., & Howard, A. (2008). Balancing clicks and bricks – strategies for multichannel retailers. Journal of Global Business Issues, 2(1), 69–76. Retrieved from ProQuest Central database.
This article explores the difficulties of doing business both in stores and online and describes a model for establishing the correct balance between the two approaches. The authors also identify five themes that need to be considered by multichannel retailers.
•Chinta, R. (2006). Retail marketing trends in USA and their effects on consumers and the global workforce. Business Renaissance Quarterly, 1(2), 65–80. Retrieved from ProQuest Central database.
This article identifies and describes current trends in the field of retail marketing, and sets them in the context of significant changes in the field in recent years.
•Griffiths, G., & Howard, A. (2008). Balancing clicks and bricks – strategies for multichannel retailers. Journal of Global Business Issues, 2(1), 69–76. Retrieved from ProQuest Central database.
This article explores the difficulties of doing business both in stores and online and describes a model for establishing the correct balance between the two approaches. The authors also identify five themes that need to be considered by multichannel retailers.
•Francis, J. (2007). Internet retailing quality: One size does not fit all. Managing Service Quality, 17(3), 341–355. doi:10.1108/0960452071074433
In this article, the author studies four dimensions of quality that should be considered in Internet marketing: the transaction, the delivery, customer service, and security.
•Gregory, G., Karävdic, M., & Zou, S. (2007). The effects of e-commerce drivers on export marketing strategy. Journal of International Marketing, 15(2), 30–57. doi:10.1509/jimk.15.2.30
This study describes a theoretical model developed by the authors to determine the effect of e-commerce drivers on the development of export marketing strategy and the results of testing this model.
•Nelson, R., Cohen, R., & Rasmussen, F. (2007). An analysis of pricing strategy and price dispersion on the Internet. Eastern Economic Journal, 33(1), 95–110. doi:10.1057/eej.2007.6
Due to the accessability of information on the Internet, consumers can now research both the price and quality of products. In this article, the authors present the benefits of keeping pricing consistent across products and over time.
Online retailing has emerged as an important retail force as consumers are purchasing online. It is now up to the conventional offline retailers to respond. In order to establish a clear difference from retailers that have offline stores, online retailers should lower their prices below the prices that offline stores ask for the same products (Chinta, 2006). This will allow price conscious consumers to take full advantage of the cost savings which could at times be considerable. Online retailers need to offer a wide variety of selection – seemingly endless selection – that offline retailers may not be able to provide. Online retailers should ensure the convenience of online shopping by enabling buyers to make a purchase of any item in seconds from the comfort of their homes (Francis, 2007).
Online retailers should also allow shoppers to compare the features and prices of their products instantaneously. Online information capture is generally more frequent and detailed. Click stream data gives complete information on how a customer shops, whilst virtual shopping carts serve as loyalty cards that capture the purchase habits of shoppers (Strzelec, 2011). Therefore, online retailers can actually increase their sales simply by targeting repeat purchases basing on individualized content of each consumer. More importantly, online retailers can extract behavior data of consumers to turn abandoned shopping baskets and/or switching decisions into operational indicators of how to stock products and serve shoppers (Chinta, 2006).
For retailers with physical stores that intend to also establish themselves online, their strategies should be to provide new services such as buy-online pick-up-in-store, in order to keep pace with preference of the shoppers. Francis (2007) pointed out that having a physical offline store wherein shoppers can engage with a product before ordering the product actually boosts demand as well as revenue. The online store would encourage consumers to align themselves with the channel that serves them better – be it online or offline – therefore optimizing the experience of the customer and reducing costs for the business (Gregory, Karävdic & Zou, 2007). Offline stores/retailers can take their brand to the web and realize immediate recognition and trust. It is of note that this value is actually true for the existing shoppers as well as aware shoppers who look for the benefits of the personalized, intimate experience and the more informative buy (Wong, 2008).
Retailers with physical stores should seamlessly integrate their channel offerings simply by introducing online shopping perks to the offline, in-store consumers. For instance by (i) allowing the shoppers to pick up online orders from the company’s physical, brick-and-mortar location; (ii) Providing free Wi-Fi. (iii) By offering in-store access to the company’s online catalog; (iv) developing an app that allows the buyers to scan product bar codes and read online reviews, and (v) accepting mobile payments through the in-store point of sale system (POS) of the company (Griffiths & Howard, 2008). In essence, companies that can seamlessly integrate offline and online offerings would be the most successful.
Globalization is essentially a trend that is typified by denationalization. Globalization has influenced marketing trends in that increasingly more companies are engaging in business-to-customer and business-to-business e-commerce that necessitates the use of online marketing strategies to attract buyers and improve sales (Nelson, Cohen & Rasmussen, 2007). Basically, the multinational firms that make use of e-commerce more intensively, engage in a wide range of e-commerce activities compared with companies that are less global.
References
Chinta, R. (2006). Retail marketing trends in USA and their effects on consumers and the global workforce. Business Renaissance Quarterly, 1(2), 65–80. Retrieved from ProQuest Central database
Francis, J. (2007). Internet retailing quality: One size does not fit all. Managing Service Quality, 17(3), 341–355. doi:10.1108/0960452071074433
Gregory, G., Karävdic, M., & Zou, S. (2007). The effects of e-commerce drivers on export marketing strategy. Journal of International Marketing, 15(2), 30–57. doi:10.1509/jimk.15.2.30
Griffiths, G., & Howard, A. (2008). Balancing clicks and bricks – strategies for multichannel retailers. Journal of Global Business Issues, 2(1), 69–76. Retrieved from ProQuest Central database
Nelson, R., Cohen, R., & Rasmussen, F. (2007). An analysis of pricing strategy and price dispersion on the Internet. Eastern Economic Journal, 33(1), 95–110. doi:10.1057/eej.2007.6
Strzelec, P. C. (2011). Online vs. Offline Shopping: Retailers Must Respond. Dallas, TX: CRC Press.
