Critical Evaluation for The media Effect Theories

Critical Evaluation for The media Effect Theories Order Instructions: Topic: How do you think the media affect us? Critically evaluate debates on media effects,and traditional and new approaches to media effect theories.

Critical Evaluation for The media Effect Theories
Critical Evaluation for The media Effect Theories

With reference to one particular case study, provide your considered assessment of how the media influence, and affect, us

Critical Evaluation for The media Effect Theories Essay Paper Description

SOCIAL FUNCTIONS OF MEDIA – Media effects
There are those that believe that the relationship between media and society is one that is
an uncontested flow of influence. In other words, the media ‘effect’ society. This ‘fact’ is one
that is continually evoked in debates about, for example, violence, anorexia and children’s
use of media. This lecture critiques the assumptions behind the media effects debate as well
as alerting students to the notion that many of these assumptions are based on moralistic
discourses and a paternal understanding of our place in culture. The relationship between
the media and what has come to be known as ‘moral panic’ is also discussed in this lecture.
The term stems from sociological work that looks at how important disagreements over
society’s values and beliefs come to be debated amongst various stakeholders in the public
sphere. In the past moral panics have centred on youth and delinquency but, more recently,
they have been focused on particular media products (e.g. reality TV, social media) and
specific minority communities (e.g. indigenous people, Middle-Eastern migrants, and asylum
seekers).
Key Terms: effects, passive audience, hypodermic model, catharsis, moral panic

Critical Evaluation for The media Effect Theories Required Reading

Campbell, S., & Ling, R. (2009). Effects of mobile communication. In B. Jennings & M. B.
Oliver. (Eds.). Media effects: Advances in theory and research (pp. 592-606). New York:
Routledge, New York.
Poynting, S., & Morgan. G. (2009). Introduction. In S. Poynting & G. Morgan (Eds.),
Outrageous!: Moral panics in Australia (pp. 1-10). Hobart: Australian Clearinghouse for
Youth Studies.
Grossberg, L., Wartella, E., & Whitney, D. (1998). Mediamaking: Mass media in a popular
culture (pp. 299-318). London, Sage.
Barker, M., & Petley, J. (Eds.). (1997). Ill effects: The media/violence debate. London:
Routledge.
Dill, K. (2009). How fantasy becomes reality: Seeing through media influence. Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
Edgar, P. (1977). Children and screen violence. St Lucia: University of Queensland Press.
Eysenck, H., & Nias, D.K.B. (1996). Desensitisation, violence and the media. In P. Marris &
S. Thornhman (Eds.), Media studies: A reader (pp. 425-432). Edinburgh: Edinburgh
University Press.
Gauntlett, D. (2005). Moving experiences: Media effects and beyond. London: John Libbey.
Goldstein, J. (Ed.). (1998). Why we watch: The attractions of violent entertainment. New
York: Oxford University Press.
Jenkins, H. (1998). Introduction: Childhood innocence and other modern myths. In H.
Jenkins (Ed.), The children’s culture reader (pp. 1-37). New York: New York University
Press.
Mackay, H. (2002). Media mania: Why our fear of modern media is misplaced. Sydney:
UNSW Press.
Rosengren, K. E. (Ed.). (1994). Media effects and beyond: Culture, socialization and
lifestyles. London and New York: Routledge.
Sullivan, J. L. (2013). Media audiences: Effects, users, institutions, and power. Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage.
Cohen, S. (1972). Folk devils and moral panics. London: MacGibbon and Kee.
Drotner, K. (1992). Modernity and media panics. In K. Schroder & M. Skovmond, Michael
(Eds.), Media cultures: Reappraising Transnational Media (pp. 42-62). London: Routledge.
Egan, D., & Hawkes, G. (2008). Girls, sexuality and the strange carnalities of
advertisements: Deconstructing the discourse of corporate paedophilia. Australian Feminist
Studies, 23, 307-322.
Goggin, G. (2006). Mobile panics: Health, manners, and our youth. In his Cell Phone
Culture: Mobile Technology in Everyday Life (pp. 107-126). London and New York:
Routledge.
Hall, S., Critcher, C., Jefferson, T., Clarke, J., & Roberts, B. (1978). Policing the crisis:
Mugging, the state, and law and order. Houndmills: Macmillan.
Hartley, J., Green, L., & Lumby, C. (2010). Refused classification and the proposed
Australian internet filter: An assault on the open society. Australian Journal of
Communication, 37, 3, 1-14.
Homan, S. (2003). The Phoenician Club, the Premier and the death of Anna Wood. In his
The Mayor’s a Square: live music and law and order in Sydney. Newtown: Local
Consumption, 137-154.
11
Lumby, C., & Albury, Kath. (2010). Too much? Too young? The sexualisation of children
debate in Australia. Media International Australia, 135, 141-152
McLelland, M. (2010). Australia’s proposed internet filtering system: Its implications for
animation, comics and gaming (ACG) and slash fan communities. Media International
Australia, 134, 7-19.
McRobbie, A. (1994). The moral panic in the age of the postmodern mass media. In her
Postmodernism and Popular Culture. London: Routledge.
Springhall, J. (1998). Youth, popular culture and moral panics: Penny gaffs to gangsta-rap,
1830-1996. New York: St Martins Press.

Critical Evaluation for The media Effect Theories Sample Answer

Analysis of the Impact of media on society

Introduction

The term media in its raw or original form is the plural of the term medium which is an object or substance through which a given form of energy, force or sensory element is passed through. It therefore bridges the gap between the origin of a given message and the recipient of the message. Media as it is used in everyday language refers to the collection of all elements that make mass communication possible. This is the internet, radio communications, television networks, newspapers and also the internet which is a platform used by independent suppliers of information as well as operators of the three traditional forms of media (Campbell and Morgan, 2009).

Society has come to rely on the different forms of mass media as a source of information pertaining to different aspects of daily life. As such the media earned the tag ‘fourth estate.’ This term is an indication of how powerful the media is in society. In the 1700s the only form of mass media was in the form of print. In this period there were three main estates of the realm namely the clergy, the nobility and commoners. The significance of the media even at this point was so profound that it was seen as an entity separate from society. With the proliferation of the media into all areas of social life today, social scientists have made efforts to explain the different ways that media impacts society through a series of theories (Campbell and Morgan, 2009).

This exercise aims to analyze the different ways that this influence of the media is manifested. Theoretical approaches that will be considered are both the traditional ones as well as modern ones. To strengthen the analysis it will be important to conduct this analysis with reference to a specific media issue. The prevalence of violent tendencies among young people in society has for a long time been said to be a direct impact of the portrayal and glorification of violent actions in the different forms of mass media, more specifically television and video games. The issue of media and violence is also ideal because of its universality and applicability to other sociological studies in the impact and potential that mass media has in society. The premise that will be considered is that the increase in violence in media leads young viewers to adopt violent tendencies later in life. Theories and concepts to be considered include the hypodermic model, catharsis, active audiences, encoding & decoding, passive audiences and also the issue of moral panic (Campbell and Morgan, 2009).

When people within a given society strongly feel that there is a chance or possibility of the moral standard that is in existence being under some form of threat they usually take up strong positions in the aim of defending or attempting to defend the values. This scenario is known as a moral panic and it is marked by shows of indignation against what is considered to be a threat. In the context of this exercise, the threat is television programs and video games that portray violence. Whenever a moral panic ensues, parties that are most closely related to the issue will be the first to be involved. In this case it is parents, teachers and other groups that are involved with children and teenagers (Poynting and Morgan, 2009).

The Hypodermic needle theory

This is one of the earliest and most basic theories that attempt to explain the way mass media influences audiences who then make up society. The name of the theory indicates the simple view of how media operates. A hypodermic needle functions by delivering medication to a specific point underneath the skin of an individual or patient. Similarly the theory states that messages transmitted through mass media go directly into the minds of those who receive or view the content. This then leads them to believe the stories conveyed and then act in a uniform manner as suggested by the information they now have. What this means is that an action desired by the originator of the message will be executed in a manner the manner intended one the receiver has got it. This theory does not take into consideration the intellect of the recipients as a tool of processing the information. The intellect that the recipients have will on the contrary enable them to engage in the desired or suggested actions. This approach to the functioning of media in society would therefore conclude that all individuals who watch violence on television when they are children will engage in the violent activities portrayed, basically a ‘monkey see-monkey do’ situation. This perspective towards the portrayal of violence by mass media is likely to therefore trigger a moral panic whereby the moral under question is peace or adherence to peace and amicable resolution of conflicts. Those who are part of this moral panic will be under the impression that the children will grow up into a generation of adults who are violent and this will then negatively impact the life of everyone in society (Poynting and Morgan, 2009).

The hypodermic needle theory has been used to explain how political propaganda is meant to work, when people who share beliefs and ideals get to automatically act upon propaganda information aimed at them. The political party could basically control the actions of its members through the messages it sends them. This type of audience is known as a passive audience because the members do not play an active role in the processing of the information they are receiving through the media. In the case of violence being portrayed, the children who watch take it that the violence is acceptable and that they should therefore implement it in their lives (Campbell and Morgan, 2009).

There is also another type of audience known as active audiences. These are audiences that play an active role in the mass communication process by mentally processing the messages they receive through media and act upon the same. This type of audience is explained under another theory known as the Reception Theory. The theory is the polar opposite of the hypodermic needle theory in many ways. For one, it takes into account the intellect of the listeners or recipients of the message and consequently their capacity to mentally process messages they receive through the media before acting upon it. The theory also considers the subjective nature of different members of the audience and these unique conditions play a direct role in how the information is received and acted upon by the audience member. As a result, the same message received by five people could lead to at most five unique responses depending on personal factors such as religion, culture, literacy, political affiliation and legal framework among others (Campbell and Morgan, 2009).

In light of the dynamics between the portrayal of violence on the media and the audiences described under this theory, the children will watch the violent presentations but process the acts they see and relate them to the real world and this will lead them to form different conclusions. One of the possibilities unfortunately is that some will see this as enough reason to engage in violence immediately or later in life. There are also those who will view the violence and realize that this was mainly for entertainment but not a practical way of dealing with conflicts in life. Others will think about the violence they have seen and also relate it to the consequences that exist in the real world such as injury, death or incarceration for breaking the law (Poynting and Morgan, 2009).

Another theory that has been formulated in a bid to explain the impact of media on audiences is Catharsis and this is a situation where people get to play out or express what is too dangerous or immoral to do in real life. This is closely linked to the consumerism aspect of mass media whereby members of the audience use what they see on the media to fulfill the different needs and wants they have. One of these needs is an urge to escape reality. Given the facilities and skills within the mass media industry this is relatively easy to do through the creation of a wide array of films depicting various ways in which people escape reality (Campbell and Morgan, 2009).

One of these ways is the creation of violence-oriented television programs and films which are then distributed and at times repackaged as video games. The thrill and excitement that is delivered by these production meet the adventure needs of the audiences without placing them in any real risk. In this regard, the children who are exposed to such violence are unlikely to end up practicing what they have seen on television screens since they understand that this was just done for the purpose of entertainment. The excitement that they need is achieved by watching more film and not necessarily engaging in real violence.

The different theories that attempt to explain and justify the manner in which mass media impacts society are all practical in their own way to varying degrees. Different messages passing through the media serve a different purpose and target different types of audience. Messages that are generated by partisan groups such as political parties or civil rights groups are more likely to prepare messages while having the hypodermic needle theory in mind since their messages are aimed at people who share a common belief system and values regarding the subject matter. The actions of such audience groups also takes place in one direction. With the case of violence and the correlation with media, it is necessary for those who place this correlation to take into consideration the different audience theories and critique them based on the assumptions made. This is because their suggestion about a correlation between media portrayals of violence and future offences by young adults is only aligned to one of the theories. It is necessary to soberly consider the fallibility of such a stance so as to get to the root of the problem because the media is indeed powerful in shaping beliefs a society has (Poynting and Morgan, 2009).

Critical Evaluation for The media Effect Theories References

Campbell, S., & Ling, R. (2009). Effects of mobile communication. In B. Jennings & M. B.

Oliver. (Eds.). Media effects: Advances in theory and research (pp. 592-606). New York:

Routledge, New York.

Poynting, S., & Morgan. G. (2009). Introduction. In S. Poynting & G. Morgan (Eds.),

Outrageous!: Moral panics in Australia (pp. 1-10). Hobart: Australian Clearinghouse for

Youth Studies.

 

Original Creation of the Earth Assignment

Original Creation of the Earth
Original Creation of the Earth

Original Creation of the Earth (nebular hypothesis vs. six day creation)

Order Instructions:

COMPARATIVE ESSAY INSTRUCTIONS

Topic:
1. Original creation of the Earth (nebular hypothesis vs. six-day creation)

Content and Outline

Use the following outline when writing your paper. Each point on the below outline should be a separate section (with the section heading, as indicated) within your paper.

I. Introduction
• Indicate which topic you chose from the list above.
• Indicate the purpose of your paper (i.e., to compare old-Earth and young-Earth viewpoints on your chosen topic).

II. Old-Earth Secular View
• What is the old-Earth secular viewpoint on your chosen topic?
• Do not discuss the old-Earth creationist viewpoint on your chosen topic. For a description of old-Earth creationism, go to http://rationalwiki.org/wiki/Old_Earth_creationism

III. Young-Earth View
• What is the young-Earth viewpoint on your chosen topic?

IV. Comparison of the Viewpoints
• Comparison is articulating similarities between the two viewpoints.
• Be sure to provide at least two similarities (comparisons) between the viewpoints.

V. Contrast of the Viewpoints
• Contrast is articulating differences between the two viewpoints.
• Be sure to provide at least two differences (contrasts) between the viewpoints.

VI. Conclusion
• Provide a summary statement of your paper.
• Be sure to restate your purpose.
• Do not introduce new material in your conclusion.

Length

This paper is to be 3–4 pages. Do not exceed this page limit. The title page and bibliography do not count toward the page total.

Format

You must use current APA format. Papers must be double-spaced with 1-inch margins all around. Font is to be Courier New or Times New Roman in 12-point font. Include a cover sheet with your name, instructor’s name, course number and title (e.g., PHSC 210, Elements of Earth Science), date, and paper title. There is no need to include an abstract in your paper.

Sources

Your Comparative Essay must include at least 4 academic sources (not including the course textbooks). Two of these additional sources must be from an old-Earth perspective, and the other two sources must be from a young-Earth perspective. Sources must be journal articles, manuscripts, scholarly textbooks, and/or internet sites from .edu or .gov sources. Avoid internet sites from .com, .net, .org, etc., as the information contained therein are not often peer reviewed. In particular, avoid Wikipedia. Also, study Bibles are not appropriate for this assignment. List all of your sources in a bibliography at the end of the paper.

Citation

Be sure to cite your sources in the body of your paper using current APA format.

SAMPLE ANSWER

Original Creation of the Earth

Original Creation of the Earth (nebular hypothesis vs. six day creation)

Introduction

Topic: The topic of this exercise is the original creation of earth and the two main opposing perspectives that seek to explain how it occurred. These are the nebular hypothesis which is secular and the six day creation which is based on biblical scripture.

Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to compare and contrast the two view points on the origin of the earth. One of the theories is the nebular theory which is based on secular scientific theories that were proposed to explain how the earth came to be. The other perspective, the six day creation, on the other hand is a Christian belief stated in the Bible about God, a supreme being deliberately created the earth.

Old Earth Secular View

The Old Earth Secular View of creation is a collective term that is used to refer to a several types of theories that are based on scientific knowledge as a means of explaining how the earth came to be in its present form. This form of reasoning relies on various branches of science such as geology, plate tectonics and various forms of radiometric dating as a means of establishing the age of the earth (LaPorte, 2014). It is termed as the old earth secular view due to the manner in which it is manifested relative to the young earth theory of creation. The ‘old’ is indicative of the belief that the earth is much older than 6000 years as indicated by the calendar followed by Judaism.

One of the more common beliefs associated with old-earth secular view is the ‘Big Bang Theory’ which is believed by scientists to have taken place over a billion years ago. The reason why it is termed as secular is that it exists parallel to religious theories of creation. Its origin is in science and rational or logical arguments thus its being called ‘secular’. Under this view, life on earth whether plant or animal came about as a result of progressive evolution from simple celled organisms whose cellular structure grew more and more complicated as the organisms sought to better adapt to their environment. According to this school of thought, evolution did not stop but is more of a continuous process taking place even today. Those who hold to this point of view are critical of those who believe in young earth creationism for completely ignoring logic (Herbert, 2014).

Young Earth Creationism

Young Earth creationism is a belief system that the earth is 6000 years old and was created in a total of six days out of nothing. The six days are taken as the literal days with 24 hours in each. This is a literal interpretation of what the Bible says in the creation story narrated in the book of Genesis which discusses the origins of earth and everything on it (Benton, 2014). Key to this belief is the belief in the existence of a supreme being who is known as the God of Abraham. This is the same God worshipped in Judaism, Christianity and also Islam albeit under different names. Under this theory humanity has virtually existed from time immemorial.

Those who take this point of view are motivated to stand by it due to their belief that what the Bible says is infallible. They therefore also oppose the secular perspective that the earth formed following a cataclysmic event in the universe followed by geological processes and evolution leading to the earth and life as known today. According to the young earth creation belief, everything that exists on earth whether natural or living has maintained the same form since it was created (MCGee, 2012).

Comparison and Contrast

Similarities

The first similarity that these two points of view share is the fact that whatever happened at the ‘beginning of time’ had a direct impact on how things are today. Regardless of the path followed, both alleged origins of the earth have led to nature being what it is today.

The second similarity that the old-earth secular belief and young earth creationism theory have is the fact that the processes that took place at the beginning of the earth put in place relevant parameters needed for the sustaining of life on earth. This is to say that both perspectives believe that life on earth is not an accident but rather something systematic.

Differences

The first difference between these two points of view is on the role of the supreme being. According to the old-earth secular belief, the earth came into existence due to the existence of the right conditions in the universe while young earth believes that God personally created everything.

The second difference is on the age of the earth. The old earth secular view takes it that the earth is at least a billion years old while the young earth view maintains that earth is six thousand years old.

Conclusion

From the above it is evident that there exists a sharp difference between the two perspectives. Proponents of both young earth creationism and old earth put a lot of effort into justifying their point of view. It is unlikely that the two will ever find a common ground due to the implication of the same. They however have areas of common ground as well as some stark differences and an understanding of these is key in differentiating the two.

References

Benton, A. (2014). Creationist Ministries Present a Distorted View of Human Evolution. Reports of the National Center for Science Education34(4).

Hebert, J. (2014). Ice Cores, Seafloor Sediments, and the Age of the Earth: Part 1. Acts & Facts43(6), 12-14.

LaPorte, C. (2013). Victorian literature, religion, and secularization. Literature Compass10(3), 277-287.

McGee, D. (2012). Creation Date of Adam from the Perspective of Young-Earth Creationism. Answers Research Journal5, 217-230.

We can write this or a similar paper for you! Simply fill the order form!

Theories and Theorists Term Paper Available

Theories and Theorists
Theories and Theorists

Theories and Theorists

Order Instructions:

Theories and Theorists; Craft a 4- to 5-page paper in which you address the following instructions and questions:

  • Identify two key theories in your field.
  • Identify the theorist(s) and sources of the theories (key articles or books) in your discipline ( Public Policy and Administration).
  • Describe the basic tenets of these theories.
  • Analyze the relationship between the two theories that you have found.
  • Explain why these theories are so important to your discipline and how they relate to the research that you are interested in doing.
  • Include a reference list for the five “classics” or influential works you have found.

SAMPLE ANSWER

Theories

Two classical theories in public policy and administration are bureaucracy theory and the scientific management theory. The classical theories have explained the interaction of employers and capital control since the late nineteenth century. According to Hassan (2013), the theories focused on a period that employers were interested in the production process. They are an imperative way of understanding public policy administration that relates to the research that I will carry out.

Theorists

Max Weber is the theorist credited to bureaucracy theory while Fredrick Taylor and other intellectuals supported the scientific management theory. Max Weber was a famous German sociologist born in 1864 AD and is the mastermind behind the theory of Bureaucracy. The two terms bereau a Latin word used with cracy a Greek work meaning office and authority to explain bureaucracy as the authority in the office famously recognized in a hierarchical organizational structure. It is described as the lines, rules and procedures of governing the work assert Cook and Brian (2006). Weber divided the organizational managerial power structures into three namely charismatic, traditional and rational/legal authority. The scientific theory is believed to have emerged from the US around 1900 AD. Taylor’s interest in developing this theory was to reach adequacy productivity and the development of the economy through studying work dynamics, time and projects. His intention was increasing production.

Basic tenets of theories described

Bureaucracy theory closely relates to public administration to date, many years after its introduction. The relationship between the two theories is based on elements like policymaking, work division, organizational procedures, control, authority and responsibility. According to Borcherding, Dillon & Willett, (1998) the foundations of the bureaucracy theory are suitable for drawing organizational policies. Theorists believe that politics, management and social sciences should have a structure of administration that is consistent to bureaucracy standards. Public authority activities need administrative organizations with a bureaucratic character and existence of specific internal structural arrangements. Clear functional specialties should also be designed to govern organizations. With specific patterns of qualification levels for joining the bureaucratic organization, public administration flows smoothly argues Borcherding et al. (1998).

Scientific management theory evolved following the adequacy of workers, availability of resources, expansion of domestic markets and the substantial increase of export markets. These aspects facilitate focus on production problems for producers, marketing, tariffs and encourage the growth of industry asserts Fox and Miller (2006). The scientific theory focused on work productive levels and did not give attention to interaction and human relations in the organization. Despite its cons, the positive aspects of the scientific theory were its representation of the first generation in scientific thinking. It outperformed modern analysis tool in time management and work dynamics drawing organizational rules and methods of management.

Relationship between the two theories

Finding the relationship between scientific and bureaucratic theory is crucial to understanding public administration. These theories determine the structure of government institutions, large and small businesses. Both theories are from the classic school of thought and remain useful to public administration to date. They aim at improving public administration through proposing structures of organization and provision of tools. Large enterprises and governmental organizations rely on bureaucratic management while scientific management is an imperative aspect for manufacturing processes and management asserts Fox and Miller (2006). Both theories are relevant for shaping modern policy-making. The theories were a product of enormous intellectual efforts that contributed to making administrative processes possible. They were also starting point of modern theories formation. Concepts from the classical theories have been developed and used in many modern organizations. They are useful sources of research and study especially when dealing with public organization and administration. The theories have been useful in helping managers and CEO’s deal with their staff in work places or institutions. From their administrative insights, organizations and institutions developed new approaches of leadership and administration.

The importance of the two theories

Both theories are vital for public policy and administration as they help solve organizational problems. The ideal bureaucratic organization was for instance based on functional specialization. Through specializing functions in the organization the smooth running of activities is possible without leaving out duties unperformed. All duties are performed by staff who specialize in that field leading to the overall success of the organization. The distribution of business activities is another factor that Marx implies and distribution of authority. While duty distribution is about employees performing roles in line of their duty, authority distribution is having the hierarchy method of leadership prevail in an organization. The bureaucratic theory also implied specific use of methods and approaches for job performance. Methods like supervision are useful for overseeing the work amongst employees. Employees are supervised by the upper level on their work to ensure that they perform their duties well. Work and activities is also supervised in terms of qualifications and documents. Qualified employees stand a better chance of making it in the organization as compared to employees who have no documents to show what they are qualified for. The bureaucratic organization should be one that separates activities and tasks for the organization from private employee’s activities. There needs to be a difference between management and flexibility for training amongst other activities, which are all done differently for the benefit of the organization. Rules and regulations cannot be overlooked in an organization as they serve as the guiding actions for employees. Employees should understand and follow those rules strictly for efficacy in the organization (Cook and Brian, 2006). Marx view on functions, duties, hierarchy, approaches of job performance and activity separation are paramount to running organizations and public offices n every way.

Like Marx, Taylor based his theory on four aspects.  The rule up thumb was replaced with normal working as a suitable scientific approach to study work and determine efficient ways of performing specific tasks.  According to Taylor, matching employees to their qualifications and jobs based on capability and motivation would be a suitable way of maximizing efficacy at work. After matching them to their roles, monitor their work and performance. Use supervision and instructions to monitor how they are employing efficacy to work. The principle of supervision was also crucial for Marx.  Fourthly, the allocation of work between employees and managers would be done differently. The managers would be expected to plan, train and allow task performance amongst employees. Taylor believed that money was a great source of motivation for employees and thus developed the fair day’s work. Low performing employees did not deserve to get the same amount of payment as highly productive employees. This approach is suitable in assessing employee motivation, productiveness, progression, laziness or less inclination to work and employee definition of organizational mission and vision. Taylor and Weber are great contributor of the management theory that remains timeless and very critical to administration. Public administration would have not been the same without the contribution of these two great intellectuals.

References

Borcherding, T. E.; Dillon, P. & Willett, T. D. (1998). “Henry George: Precursor to public

Choice analysis”. The American Journal of Economics and Sociology 57 (2): 173–182.

Cook, Brian J. (2006). “Making Democracy Safe for the World: Public Administration in the Political Thought of Woodrow Wilson.” In Handbook of Organizational Theory and Management: The Philosophical Approach Second Edition, eds. Thomas D. Lynch and Peter L. Cruise. Boca Raton: CRC Press.

Fox, Charles J. and Hugh T. Miller. (2006). “Postmodern Philosophy, Postmodernity, and Public Organization Theory.” In Handbook of Organizational Theory and Management: The Philosophical Approach Second Edition, eds. Thomas D. Lynch and Peter L. Cruise. Boca Raton: CRC Press.

Hassan, E. (2013). Classical theories of public administration, Walden University; University of    Rockies

We can write this or a similar paper for you! Simply fill the order form!

Application of Theory to the Practice

Application of Theory to the Practice
Application of Theory to the Practice

Application of Theory to the Practice

Order Instructions:

Assignment:
Applying Theory to a Practice Problem: Part 1: Introduction and Problem of Practice

Due Date: Dec 31, 2014 23:59:59

Details:
Refer to “Identify Practice Problem Grading Criteria.”
Write a paper of 2,000?2,500 words. You will develop the paper in three parts.
In Part 1, you will identify a practice problem from a review of the literature, then write an introduction to the paper.
The introduction should state the purpose of paper, which includes applying theory to practice situations, identifying the practice problem and stating the rationale for the selection—i.e. why is this an important problem, as well as defining the practice problem and supporting it with the literature review.
Prepare this assignment according to APA guidelines found in the APA Style Guide, located in the Student Success Center. An abstract is not required.
You are required to submit this assignment to Turnitin. Refer to the directions in the Student Success Center. Only Word documents can be

Assignment:
Applying Theory to a Practice Problem: Part 2: Application of Middle-Range Theory to Problem
Due Date: Jan 07, 2015 23:59:59

Details:
In Part 2, you will apply a middle-range theory to the problem described in the introduction.
Describe the theory, starting with a short bio of the theorist along with the major influences that the theorist has contributed.
Describe the concepts and propositions of the theory. Provide an example from the literature as to how the theory has been applied.
Apply the theory to your practice problem, demonstrating the links to the elements of the problem and theory. In addition, make sure to describe how practice would change by incorporating the theory. It should be clear to reader that this is an appropriate theory for the problem.
Prepare this assignment according to APA guidelines found in the APA Style Guide, located in the Student Success Center. An abstract is not required.
Refer to the “Apply Middle-Range Nursing Theory Grading Criteria.”

Assignment:
Benchmark Assignment: Applying Theory to a Practice Problem: Part 3: Application of Borrowed Theory to Problem and Conclusion

Due Date: Jan 21, 2015 23:59:59 Max Points: 150

Details:
Revise Parts 1 and 2 of your paper, based on the feedback provided by the “Identify Practice Problem Grading Rubric” and “Apply Middle-Range Nursing Theory Grading Criteria.”
In Part 3, you will apply a borrowed theory to the problem described in the introduction.

Describe the theory, starting with a short bio of the theorist along with the major influences that the theorist has contributed.
Describe the concepts and propositions of the theory. Provide an example from the literature as to how the theory has been applied.
Apply the theory to your practice problem, demonstrating the links to the elements of the problem and theory. In addition, make sure to describe how practice would change by incorporating the theory. It should be clear to the reader that this is an appropriate theory for the problem.
Write a conclusion. The conclusion should summarize key points of the paper. Identify the usefulness of applying theory to practice, including both nursing and borrowed theory, and identify problems with the application of the two theories presented in Parts 2 and 3.

Prepare this assignment according to the APA guidelines found in the APA Style Guide, located in the Student Success Center. An abstract is not required.
This assignment uses a grading rubric. Instructors will be using the rubric to grade the assignment; therefore, students should review the rubric prior to beginning the assignment to become familiar with the assignment criteria and expectations for successful completion of the assignment.
You are required to submit this assignment to Turnitin. Refer to the directions in the Student Success Center. Only Word documents can be submitted to Turnitin.

SAMPLE ANSWER

Application of Theory to the Practice

Section 1

In the modern age, the field of nursing is ever evolving to meet the new challenges that emerge in every setting. Many hospitals have embraced the nursing code of ethics and nursing theories in their duties and as a result, there have been successful results. Over the years, there have been a number of nursing theories that have enhanced a significant contribution in the nursing professional. The impact that nursing theory enhances in the nursing practice cannot be underestimated in that it creates a strong framework to define and support nursing practice, enhance quality patient care, and provide solutions to problems that emerge in nursing practices (Parse, 1995). The theory of human caring by Jean Watson creates a strong platform to understand the importance of understanding and applying nursing principles to resolve the challenges that emerge on a daily basis. In depth, this section will discuss how nursing theories impact nurse staffing in hospitals.

Practice Problem and its Importance

            A body of nursing literature reveals that nurse staffing has been an ongoing challenge faced by most hospitals (Alligood and Tomey, 2006). Healthcare leaders have acknowledged that staffing issue is an ongoing concern that influences the safety of patients and nurses. Nurse staffing is an elusive problem for many nurse leaders, clinical nurses, and educators in the acute setting. Hospitals with inadequate or low nurse staffing level have poorer patient outcomes, thus compromising on quality care. Decreased nursing staff affects patients’ safety and increased incidences of medication errors, patients’ falls, longer hospital stays, and high patients’ mortality rate. Despite the problem affecting nursing professional, traditional methods of solving the issue with the retention plans and financially based recruitment have not fully resolved the issue. Nevertheless, applying nursing theories has provided great insights on how nurses can work hard to enhance quality care to patients. Managers and hospital administrators understand the need to boost quality care and increase nurses’ morale. Indeed, when nurses are motivated to perform their tasks they would be valuable resources that strive to enhance the well-being of patients.

In today’s society, nurses face a lot of challenges trying to balance their personal lives and their career. By applying Watson’s theory, healthcare leaders understand that nurses should be motivated by various rewards to perform their duties effectively. This theory creates a strong platform for hospitals to understand that human caring is a crucial aspect in nursing that promotes quality care and solve staffing issues. To fully respond to the problem of nurse staffing, every individual in the clinical setting should understand that a human being is a valued being that should be nurtured, assisted, supported, cared for, and respected. This theory provides insights that, a caring environment is one that provides the development of an individual’s well being and allows the healthcare provider to accomplish his or her career goals (McEwen and Wills, 2011).

So, by putting the theory of human care in the hospital set-up, nurse managers and leaders understand the need of motivating nurses to perform, their duties effectively with an aim of promoting quality care delivery. The application of Watson’s theory has been used to improve nursing practice and provide nurses with the most satisfying aspects that boost holistic care. Applying theories in nursing is logical in that it offers solutions to immediate problems that emerge in the health sectors (Parker, 2006).

References

Alligood, M. R., and Tomey, A. M. (2006). Nursing theory; Utilization and Application (3rd ed.). St. Louis, MO: Mosby Elsevier.

McEwen, M. and Wills, E. M. (2011). Theoretical basis for nursing (32nd ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins.

Parker, M. E. (2006). Nursing theories and nursing practice. (2nd ed.). Philadelphia, PA: F. A. Davis.

Parse, R. R. (1995). Illuminations: The human becoming theory in practice and research. New York, NY: National League for Nursing Press.

Section 2

The Theorist Bibliography

Jean Watson is a recognized nurse theorist who has transformed the world with her knowledge and contribution of human caring. Born on June 10, 1940, Watson is a known scholar and the father of Watson Caring Science Institute. The institute is a non-profit organization dedicated to support and expands the insights of the practices and theories of human caring in the healthcare sectors. The modern society celebrates Watson for having six honorary doctorates that have transformed the world. The theorist has had the privilege of travelling worldwide teaching nurses and healthcare providers the theory of human caring. In 1961, Watson graduated from Lewis Gale School and continued with her studies at the Colorado University where she earned her B.S. She later earned her M.S in 1966 and acquired her PhD, in the education and counseling psychology in 1973.

This theory has been applicable in the modern age in that the body of nursing has increasingly been used as a distinct caring discipline and profession that transform the well-being of human beings. The aspect of human caring is crucial governs the body of nursing in the sense that this action is what has enhanced a strong impact in ensuring that all patients are handled well irrespective of where they are coming from. Dr. Watson’s theory has three major elements that have been used in the nursing field. These factors include carative factors, transpersonal caring relationships, and caring moment. Nurses have been encouraged to exercise these aspects at all cost regardless of challenges that emerge. Nursing practice would change by incorporating this theory in the sense that, every human being desire to be cared and loved.

Propositions and Concepts of the Theory

            To this theory, human beings have the capacity of caring for other human beings. According to this theorist, human caring is crucial in the nursing profession as it results into the satisfaction of human needs. When demonstrated in the healthcare institutions, the aspect of human caring boosts health of individuals and enhances family growth. A caring environment is crucial as it allows individuals to choose the best actions that improve their lives and those around them. In essence, the key assumption of this theory is that, interpersonal interaction is crucial in boosting quality care and this reflects on the human nature of providing and expressing care in each other.

            The theorist defines her theory in ten important factors that promotes healing, health, and wholeness of the human beings. These ten factors include practicing love and kindness towards self and other people, instilling faith and encouraging others, nurturing individuals’ beliefs to have confidence in life, fostering trusting and helping relationships, taking every opportunity as a way to grow, supporting individual needs, and creative solutions that improves patients’ well-being. Other factors include creating a positive environment that attends to societal, spiritual, and physical needs of the patients, fulfilling acts of healing and attending to human needs, and remaining open to embrace every challenge that emerged in the healthcare industry. The ten factors regard the need to have self-respect and respect those in leadership. The theory is crucial in the interventions of interpersonal relationships. Specifically, it creates a strong ground where healthcare providers or else nurses understand the importance of building strong relationships both with their colleagues and patients at large. The theory encourages the body of nursing to embrace the concept of caring, forgiveness, kindness, and compassion in nursing practice (Meleis, 2007).

Theory Applied Practically

The theory has been used to describe the importance of having a caring approach in the nursing leadership. Specifically, it provides adequate insights and foundation of how human caring creates a strong platform to enhance quality m anagement. Leaders can use this theory to understand and motivate nurses to achieve a guided or structured vision of care. As mentioned, motivating employees in an organization is crucial as it boosts customer care services. So, motivating nurses promotes patients’ healing process and wholeness. The theory helps nurse managers to have an ethical and moral guidelines or else principles that address the problems that emerge in the administration and in the delivery of patient care (McEwen and Wills, 2011).

Nurse staffing is a crucial aspect that hospitals cannot ignore when delivering patients’ care (McEwen and Wills, 2011). Although many hospitals spend a lot of resources managing the workflow and optimizing staff hours, much needs to done about caring of nurses. When a hospital embrace the aspect of caring for its staff, then this will increase nurse retention, customers or else patients’ satisfaction, and improve the entire delivery of care. Therefore, understanding the concept of human caring is crucial as it lays a strong ground where nurses are motivated to perform their tasks. It also lays a strong path for nurses to exercise their duties to improve the well-being of patients.

Practice Change with the Theory Implementation

A perfect example of how human caring theory can enhance change can be outline in solving the issue of nurse staffing. According to Brown (2005), nursing leaders can address this issue by implementing the basic concepts of the theory. For instance, nurse managers can support nurses to engage in human or else self-care practices and activities that promote love, kindness, and respect of self and others. Nurse leaders can also develop and implement health policies that provide healing process, support team work, allows nurses to rest, and help nurses to learn from one another. In so doing, this would demonstrate how utilizing this theory would enhance a significant contribution in the work environment and reduce the issue of nurse staffing. This theory allows nurse leaders to incorporate human caring in depth and ensure that nurses are working hard to improve the well-being of patients. The impact and connection between nurses’ leaders, nurses and patients are understood by understanding Ken Wilbur’s integrated theory (Hamric, Spross and Hanson, 2009).

References

Brown, S. J. (2005). Direct clinical practice. In A.B. Hamric, J.A. Spross, C. M. Hanson (Eds)      Advanced practice nursing: An integrative approach, (3rd ed.). (pp. 143-185). St. Louis, MO: Saunders Elsevier.

Hamric, A. B., Spross, J. A., and Hanson, C. M. (2009). Advanced practice nursing: An    integrative approach       (4th ed.). St. Louis, MO: Saunders Elsevier.

McEwen, M., and Wills, E. (2011). Theoretical basis for nursing (3nd ed.). Philadelphia:Lippincott, Williams,  and Wilkins.

Meleis, A. F. (2007). Theoretical nursing: Development and progress (4th ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott, Williams, and Wilkins.

Section 3

Borrowed Theorist Biography

Over the years, Wilbur’s theory has been known to support the input of human caring theory by Jean Watson. Born in 1949 in Oklahoma City, Ken Wilber is the most celebrated and influential American Philosopher of the modern age. Wilber’s journey to discussing about human caring has been fascinating. Wilber enrolled at Duke University in 1967 and he became inspired to influence the world with his teachings. After few years, Wilber enrolled in the Nebraska University Lincoln where he pursued a degree in biology and chemist and later a master degree in biochemistry. While in school, Wilber became interested in western and eastern philosophy and psychology and he established the need to elaborate about consciousness through which he later used this concept to incorporate integrated theory. In 2000, Wilbur established the Integral Institute, whose aim was to educate many people about self-awareness. Wilbur believed that human beings have the responsibility of knowing who they are and further encouraged his audience to care for self and others. Indeed, the theorist support the theory of human caring various books such as “Caring Science as sacred science” and the Philosophy and science of human caring” (McEwen and Wills, 2011).

Theory Applied Practically

Integral theory has had a superb reputation of providing insights about western and eastern understanding of the consciousness. The theory has been applied to politics, art, business, medicine, ecology, and spirituality.  Through this theory, researchers have established applications of coaching, leadership, and development. In leadership aspect, the theory provides insights of leadership theories and further help people to apply them in different perspectives. The model described by the theorist discusses four models; one that examines the self, collective aspects, internal, and external aspects. Understanding the four quadrant models creates a strong platform to enhance an environment that cares for people. Integral theory has also been applied by instructors at colleges when leading students and enhancing an environment that facilitates smooth learning experience.

Practice Change with the Theory Implementation

Nursing practice would change by incorporating this theory in the sense that, it creates insights on the importance of having a strong identity. Through this theory, nurses are encouraged to know who they are and further work hard to enhance the well being of others. Indeed, when an individual knows who they are in terms of their strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats then they are in a better position to do activities that enhance the well being of people. In the nursing field, it helps nurses to avoid tasks that would deteriorate the well being of patients. In addition, this theory is appropriate in solving the root issues of staffing. For instance, by using the quadrant model used by Wilbur namely the self, collective aspects, internal, and external aspects, nurse leaders can understand the importance of making decisions that improves the well-being of staff and patients. Having a clear understanding of self may be vital for leaders in making the decisions that eradicate the issue of nurse staffing. Understanding how to motivate nurses to perform their tasks effectively would be vital in eradicating the issue of staffing and improving patients’ health (Dreyfusn and Dreyfus, l986).

Potential Challenges

It is vital to note that, the change does not rely on the most common methods of retention and recruitment, rather requires the hospital and its management is to have adequate knowledge on how enact the change required. Thus, applying this theory may be costly especially when creating awareness to the employees on how to improve their services to patients. Educating and training employees on the aspect of caring demand a lot of resources. (Alligood and Tomey, 2006).

Conclusion

Nurse staffing has been a common challenge faced in most healthcare institutions. Over the years, this issue has been address through various methods such as additional pay incentives, and recruitment bonuses. Despite the initiative made to address the issue, the truth of the matter is that these methods have not fully addressed the root cause of the issue.  With this in mind, applying Integral and human caring theory promotes a caring environment. By applying Watson’s theory, healthcare leaders understand the importance of having rewards in the workplace.  This theory creates the need to motivate competent and potential employees in the organization. Despite the benefits that emerge from applying this theory, the truth of the matter is that it requires adequate training to be effective in the workplace. An organization must invest on giving rewards to their employees to motivate their effort.

References

Alligood, M. R., and Tomey, A. M. (2006). Nursing theory: Utilization and Application (3rd ed.). St. Louis, MO: Mosby Elsevier.

Dreyfus, H. L., and Dreyfus, S. E. (l986). Mind over machine: The power of human intuition and expertise in the era of the computer.New York: Free Press.

McEwen, M., and Wills, E. (2011). Theoretical basis for nursing, 3rd ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott, Williams, and Wilkins.

We can write this or a similar paper for you! Simply fill the order form!

Market Efficiency Theory Assignment Paper

Market Efficiency Theory
Market Efficiency Theory

Market Efficiency Theory

Order Instructions:

For This paper they are three main questions to respond to, and its is critical that the writer detail explain why responding to the questions. The pliagiarism report should be almost zero. And APA 6th Edition must be used throughout the entire paper.

Market Efficiency Theory

After reviewing your resources below , consider the following. The theory of market efficiency is based on the premise that a market is considered efficient when stock prices are an actual reflection of information known about a company. U.S. markets are generally viewed as semi-strong form market efficient.

• What would happen if U.S. markets became less efficient?

• What might lead to markets becoming less efficient?

• How do markets in other countries compare to the U.S. in terms of efficiency?

Resources
• Article
• Markowitz, H. (2005). Market efficiency: A theoretical distinction and so what? Financial Analysts Journal, 61(5), 17–30. Retrieved from Business Source Premier database.

In this in-depth analysis of the capital asset pricing model (CAPM), the author concludes that despite some faulty assumptions, it still should be used; but only with a clear understanding of its limitations and a knowledge of other more realistic constraints that could be used.
• Bernardo, A., Chowdhry, B., & Goyal, A. (2007). Growth options, beta, and the cost of capital. Financial Management (Blackwell Publishing Limited), 36(2), 5–17. Retrieved from Business Source Premier database.

The authors in this article argue that further breaking down the beta into aggregate parts has important implications for determining the cost of capital.

• Cooper, I., & Nyborg, K. (2008). Tax-adjusted discount rates with investor taxes and risky debt. Financial Management (Blackwell Publishing Limited), 37(2), 365–379. Retrieved from Business Source Premier database.

In response to a new interest in tax savings from debt, the authors developed a formula to determine the tax-adjusted discount rate.

• Haug, M., & Hirschey, M. (2006). The January effect. Financial Analysts Journal, 62(5), 78–88. Retrieved from Business Source Premier database.

The fact that an unusually high rate of return on small-capitalization stocks is consistently observed each January is discussed in this article along with the author’s explanation of the occurrence.

• Anderson, J., & Smith, G. (2006). A great company can be a great investment. Financial Analysts Journal, 62(4), 86–93. Retrieved from Business Source Premier database.

In this research, the authors tested the value of a portfolio that only included stocks from companies selected as “most admired” by Fortune magazine and they found that the stocks substantially outperformed the market.

• Statman, M., Fisher, K., & Anginer, D. (2008). Affect in a behavioral asset-pricing model. Financial Analysts Journal, 64(2), 20–29. Retrieved from Business Source Premier database.

In an attempt to understand investor behavior, the authors developed a behavioral asset-pricing model to determine the effect that the level of admiration of a company had on investment decisions regardless of actual returns.

Readings
Course Text
•Corporate Finance
?Chapter 13, “Risk, Cost of Capital, and Valuation”
This chapter extends the basic model of the cost of capital to include the costs, risks, and budgeting associated with both equity and debt capital. There is also a discussion on the determination of beta in real-world companies.
?Chapter 14, “Efficient Capital Markets and Behavioral Challenges”
This chapter describes the value associated with certain corporate financial decisions and how the different market efficiencies play a role in the decision-making process.

SAMPLE ANSWER

When the money is put in the market, the aim is to generate more profits in return for the capital invested (Markowitz, 2005). In addition to making profitable returns, the investors in the market also try to outshine other markets. If the US markets became less efficiency there would then be fewer returns on average and very high volatility when it comes to the countries investors. The liquidity would not be able to impend the market approach and this would end up changing efficiency in terms of production of goods and services (Bernardo et al, 2007). On the other side, if US market became less efficient, then there would be no accurate information on market issues and there benefit in the market would be very low. When the market is not efficient, the market would become very unpredictable for investment and this is likely to affect the rate of investment. In return, this will affect the market prices, which in turn affect the rate of investment (Cooper & Nyborg, 2008). Inefficiency in the US market would likely lead to the market failure, which would negatively affect the allocation of goods and services. When the market fails, there will be under provision of goods and services due to lack of public goods and the abuse of monopoly power by few business leaders.

The United States market is likely to become inefficient due to lack of public goods, which would affect the cost of production of goods and services (Haug& Hirschey, 2008). When these goods are under produced, the affect the forces of demand and supply that in turn results into market inefficiency. The United States market is also likely to become inefficient due to environmental concerns since the success of the market depends on the sustainable development. Since merit goods holds an important part in the United States economy, underproduction of the merit goods is likely to result into negative externalities that would affect the quality of education, healthcare, and other important segments of the economy (Statman et al, 2008). Similarly, overproduction of demerits goods is also likely to result in market inefficiency. Some of the demerit goods that can negatively affect the United States market are the overproduction of goods such as alcohol, cigarettes, and prostitution. Market inefficiency in the United States can also result from the abuse of monopoly power by big corporations as they can easily manipulate output in their greed to realize huge profits from their customers (Anderson & Smith, 2006). Moreover, the United States market inefficiency can also result from negative and positive externalities that arise from the spillover effects that are related to the production and consumption of the goods and services in the market.

When compared with other markets around the globe, the American market seems more efficient that most developed markets. There is a big difference between the average wealth growth in the American markets compared to other developed market such as China, Germany, and Britain. The United States market contains a list of most admired companies such as Apple, Microsoft, Wal-Mart, among others that enjoys the benefits of their market efficiency. In this regard, most of these American companies outperform the S&P 500, regardless of the day the stocks are being purchased (Cooper & Nyborg, 2008). Therefore, this is a clear indication of the market efficiency that focuses on the intangibles that don’t show up in the company’s balance sheet.

References

Anderson, J., & Smith, G. (2006). A great company can be a great investment. Financial Analysts Journal, 62(4), 86–93.

Bernardo, A., Chowdhry, B., & Goyal, A. (2007). Growth options, beta, and the cost of capital. Financial Management (Blackwell Publishing Limited), 36 (2), 5–17.

Cooper, I., & Nyborg, K. (2008). Tax-adjusted discount rates with investor taxes and risky debt. Financial Management (Blackwell Publishing Limited), 37(2), 365–379.

Haug, M., & Hirschey, M. (2006). The January effect. Financial Analysts Journal, 62(5), 78–88.

Markowitz, H. (2005). Market efficiency: A theoretical distinction and so what? Financial Analysts Journal, 61(5), 17–30.

Statman, M., Fisher, K., & Anginer, D. (2008). Affect in a behavioral asset-pricing model. Financial Analysts Journal, 64(2), 20–29.

We can write this or a similar paper for you! Simply fill the order form!

How Marx’s position related to Liberalism

How Marx’s position related to Liberalism
How Marx’s position related to Liberalism

How Marx’s position related to Liberalism

Summary of Marx’s political philosophy. How  Marx’s position related to Liberalism

Order Instructions:

2000 word essay

2 PAGE DISCOUNT

Summary of Marx’s political philosophy. How  Marx’s position related to Liberalism

Please ONLY USE resources below as provided in uploads. Please reference these resources accordingly.

“Marx, Marxism and Liberalism” by R. Farrell
“The Communist Manifesto” by K. Marx and F. Engels
Marx, Economics and Morality (from SEP)
Defence of Marx by Ellen Wood
Vigor on Marx and Modern Capitalism.

SAMPLE ANSWER

How Marx’s position related to Liberalism

Karl Marx, one of the most influential philosophers in the history of human existence Karl Marx, one of the highly influential philosophers in the history of human existence, came up with a philosophical system. His works stand out from the work of other philosophers who contributed on the subject of human philosophy. The basic human history stuff according to Karl Marx consisted of the principles of exploitation and class. In the context of modern capitalism, there exists three classes in the sense of Marx’s world: those who employ labor; the employed ones; and those in the third class of a single person business (Vigor 2004). These groupings according to Marx were the most significant in the study of human existence, whereby the classes are viewed as united within itself due to the common economic pitting sense. Marx went on to breakdown his philosophic theory based on modern capitalism. Marxists theory can be reconstructed upon the basis of some significant tenets of liberalism. In the discussion of how the position of Marx relates liberalism, inherent tensions based on the premises of liberalism can be differently interpreted. This paper summarizes Marx’s political philosophy and analyses how Marx’s position relates to Liberalism.

Exploitation and inequality are mentioned to be the main tenets of Marx’s theory on modern capitalism. In argument, the full corpus of the philosophical by Marx can be correlated to three significant postulates according to Immanuel Kant, namely: freedom, equality and rational autonomy. Rational autonomy of people is the state where individuals use reason in making decisions regarding the way of life that a person deems fit, without reliance on cultural, social, intellectual or religious tradition- whereby liberal individualism is one of the core tenets of liberal individualism (Vigor 2004). The following is the discussion of both exploitation and inequality as the core tenets of Marx’s theory.

Inequality

The ideals of freedom, equality and rational autonomy standout as the core tenets of the ideals of Marx regarding ethics and justice. It is in relation to such a vision that Marx conducts evaluation of the human society. He discusses the empirical facts that constitute the human society through an examination of contemporary and past social-political systems whereby he discovered that the history of the society is a struggle between classes. The entire spectrum of the human history has been characterized by oppression; the human existence facts and the livelihood of most humans are not anything near the ideal. It is plagued by oppression, injustice, inequality and lack of autonomy as the characteristics of the existence of humans (Vigor 2004). In Marx’s view, regardless of the fact that the conditions of life for most humans had been improved through the improvement of conditions of life for most humans, there was still a ubiquitous existence of inequalities in the human life. In his analysis of the 19th-century societies, he mentioned that there was a system of two classes that was developing in Europe. One of them was Bourgeois, which was composed of a few people who owned the land and controlled mines, trade, factories. The other class was Proletariat, which was an ever-rising salary-earning working class who were under employment of the Bourgeois. A small number of the people, Bourgeois, had attained a status of rational autonomy since they could pursue their lives comfortably the way they deemed fit; but a large population, proletariat, did not enjoy rational autonomy privileges (Vigor 2004).

The justification according to Marx for this huge disparity was unjustifiable. In other words, the interests of the classes outlined according to Marx’s reasoning irreconcilable, and as such that was the reason why they were inevitable for every human society, like in capitalism where it exists as a struggle between classes that takes the shape of a continuous civil war, characterized by the misery, attendant waste, and frustration which the class struggle causes (Karl & Friedrich, 2005). The frustration and misery of the conditions of class-struggle are increased among the employees by the fact that they are subjected to inherent exploitation. There was a revolt tendency in the lower class that was intensified by this fact, coupled with the boom-slump cycle, as a sure characteristic of a capitalist society (Karl & Friedrich, 2005). Marx reasoned that there was a defect in capitalist functioning, otherwise referred to as the ‘over-population crises. Further, the struggle was intensified by the fact that the oppressed population could not sufficiently purchase what was produced.

Exploitation

After an argument that there was no justification for the discrepancies between bourgeois and proletariat led Marx to address the issue of whether such a discrepancy was evil or ethical. He based his argument on the dynamic origin of the division between the two classes (Karl & Friedrich, 2005).

Marx argued that the bourgeoisie and its exploitation of the world-market has resulted into a cosmopolitan character in regard to consumption and production everywhere in the world. Marx detailed how the bourgeoisie through the dramatic improvements of the various production instruments had extended their exploitation to the lower class. They had subjected the economy to the town ruling, creating bug cities resulting to increased population. He also mentioned that the bourgeoisie find their way around crises that they have created through dominance and insufficient purchase of what is produced through the conquest on fresh markets, and more through the exploitation of the old markets that have been enforced by a mass destruction pf the production forces for high quantities. He notes that no sooner is the exploitation of the worker by the manufacturer, so deep at an end, that the worker receives the cash salary, than he/she is beset by the various bourgeoisie proportions like the shopkeeper, landlord, or the pawn broker, among others (Karl & Friedrich, 2005). His philosophy was, therefore, centralized on this philosophy on the basis of the exploitation of the many by the few. His initial argument is, therefore, that capitalism is unfair because it is based on Marx’s observation that all the profit from the capitalist is a product of worker exploitation. It an absurd secret devoid of harmony and mutual benefit, but based in a system where the extraction of profit is systematically done unjustly. However, at a certain point, the description of capitalism by Marx is not conclusive as he incorporates such words as robbery, embezzlement and exploitation – he believes that capitalism is unjust but he doesn’t belief that he believes it is unjust (Wolff, 2003).

Relation of Marx’s position to Liberalism

Karl Marx is still regarded to be the strongest of the critics of liberalism in the history of western political thought. In his analysis, he argues that liberalism is made up of manifold different political movements and outlooks, and goes on to argue that is underlined by the principled commitment to equality and the freedom of individuals (Wolff, 2003). His critique of Liberalism can be viewed through his dismissal of rights as illustrations of the egoistic and estranged individual of the society ruled by bourgeois in his sentiments regarding “On the Jewish Question”. In his arguments, it can be deciphered that he views human rights only as barriers rather than bridges to the freedom of the human. In his ancient assessment of human rights which is considered as the most mature assessment of rights, he is inherently negative (Robert, 2011).

The consensus surrounding the negative depiction of rights and rights by Marx, as well as their irrelevance historically in regard to communalism, are not confined to Marxists as it is confined for the case of Pushakanis. He even mislead the numerous scholars who adopted his arguments regarding rights and rights, whereby they echoed his arguments that the end of domination by one-class will also imply the end the rights and rights concept. It is clear that Marx had little patience for the considerations of bourgeois in the liberated society. There is good reason to confirm that the approach Marx took regarding this issue criticized the conventional liberal interpretation on the abolition of rights and rights in a community that is based on communism (Wolff, 2003).

The earliest appraisal of “on the Jewish Question” in regard to Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen is a starting point that appropriately points out the earliest proof that Marx had a disdain for liberalism, and rights and rights. “On the Jewish Question” which was written in 1843, it was a time when Marx wasn’t conversant with the decisive role that was played by political economy historically (Ellen, 2011). In his recount, Marx mentions that when he was requested by the Jews to support a parliamentary petition so as to grant equal political and civil rights to the Jewish Community in Prussia, which is an initiative he endorsed positively. “On the Jewish Question” Marx does not agree with Bruno Bauer, who was formerly his mentor on the issue that Jews have to be granted political and civil rights until the renunciation of religion for Judaism. In his revelation of flaws that Bauer commits, it is clear that he is strangling liberalism. It is noteworthy here that political emancipation is a reference to the liberal state of the constitution that is not bound to private or religion property at the political level. The fact that he refutes these claims proves that he does not support liberal state of the constitution (Ellen, 2011).

In the outline of his theory, Marx proceeds to show that the unchallengeable rights of security, property, liberty and equality cannot exceed the bourgeois civil society contradictions. His arguments are that the right to liberty equals to not more than the protection of the competitive and atomistic individual from the dangers of the individuals they are in competition with. This is not to imply that Marx could not figure out any positive way to put rights into use. Actually, he embraces political emancipation by mentioning that it was a step in the required direction towards the human emancipation struggle, by stating that it is the last representation of huge progress towards human emancipation – it is a final human emancipation form in the framework of the social order that is prevailing (Ellen, 2011).

Fat forward, in Capital Marx manages to demonstrate that the equality and freedom of individuals in the exchange arena in challenged by capitalist approach to production, whereby capital domination over the level of labor triumphs under the realms of equality of rights. He argues that equality of rights and freedoms results to freedom and inequality in the capitalistic approach to the production sphere. Later on in Capital he argues that an equality of rights to all persons is actually a mere ‘deceptive semblance’ in the context of capitalistic approach to production (Robert, 2011). Therefore, in regard to liberalism, the assessment of rights by Marx assume two different dimensions. The first one is whereby he outlines the right of individuals as an advance historically, while on the other one he identifies that these individual rights also portray exploitive production relations in a community that claims to operate in an equal and free society. The point he eminently dwells on in Capital is that the abstract individual is viewed as a owner of commodities, whereby he proceeds to address independent producers of commodities, who socially relate in an environment meditated by community exchange at the marketplace (Robert, 2011).

In conclusion, exploitation and inequality are mentioned to be the main tenets of Marx’s theory on modern capitalism. In argument, the full corpus of the philosophical by Marx can be correlated to three significant postulates according to Immanuel Kant, namely: freedom, equality and rational autonomy. The ideals of freedom, equality and rational autonomy standout as the core tenets of the ideals of Marx regarding ethics and justice (Robert, 2011). It is in relation to such a vision that Marx conducts evaluation of the human society. Marx argued that bourgeoisie and its exploitation of the world-market has resulted into a cosmopolitan character in regard to consumption and production everywhere in the world. Karl Marx is still regarded to be the strongest of the critics of liberalism in the history of western political thought. In his ancient assessment of human rights which is considered as the most mature assessment of rights, he is evaluated to be inherently negative (Robert, 2011).

References

Vigor P.H. (2004). MARX AND MODERN CAPITALISM. Retrieved November 8, 2014, from https://library.newcastle.edu.au/articles/1937323.5491/1.PDF

Karl, M., & Friedrich, E. (2005, January 25). Retrieved November 8, 2014, from http://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/61/pg61.html

Wolff, J. (2003, August 26). Karl Marx. Retrieved November 8, 2014, from http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/marx/

Ellen, W. (2011). The University of Newcastle /All Locations. Retrieved November 8, 2014, from http://library.newcastle.edu.au/search~S16?/rpoli/rpoli/1,30,30,B/frameset~1943478&FF=rpoli3050 political theory and social change&1,1,

Robert, F. (2011). Marx, Marxism and Liberalism.

We can write this or a similar paper for you! Simply fill the order form!

Relationship between Theory and Practice

Relationship between Theory and Practice
Relationship between Theory and Practice

Relationship between Theory and Practice

Order Instructions:

This is the second question of four questions in the comprehensive exam toward PhD program. I have already sent my information and all four questions at once, but in case you may need it again, can be forwarded.
Four questions are pasted below, please respond to the second question and when doing so please pay attention to the informative papers that have been sent for previous question:

Question 1: Theory

Theories play a vitally important role in guiding research and organizing and making sense of research findings. In spite of the great importance of theory-building and theory testing within your field of specialization, there is no generally accepted conception of what a theory is. Because your dissertation must contribute to theory, you must have a clear understanding of the variety of conceptions of theory, types of theories, and ways of contributing to theory and be able to justify how, exactly, your study contributes to theory.

Part 1
Using Gelso (2006), Harlow (2009), Stam, H. (2000, 2010), Wacker (1999), and five additional peer-reviewed articles from your specialization, discuss scholarly views on the nature and types of theory. Compare and contrast at least three views of what constitutes a theory, including the view you will use in Part 3 of this question. Be sure to distinguish theory from related concepts, such as hypothesis, paradigm, model, and concept.

Part 2
Using Ellis & Levy (2008), Harlow, E. (2009), and five additional peer-reviewed articles, review the scholarly literature on the relationship between theory and research and the ways research (quantitative and qualitative) can contribute to theory. Discuss at least three ways research can contribute to theory.

Part 3
Pick a theory (in one of the views of what constitutes a theory that you identified in Part 1) of current interest directly related to the topic area of your dissertation. A theory is currently of interest if there are articles published on it in the past five years. Using at least 10 published, peer-reviewed research articles:

1. Explain how the theory adds or may add to our understanding of your field and/or research topic.

2. Discuss and analyze the literature on two areas of controversy or unanswered questions related to the theory.

The structure of your paper should be as follows:
Title page
Body (10-15 pages, no more or less; APA Style; use appropriate headings for organization of the paper)
References (APA Style)

Learning Outcomes:
1. Compose a theoretically sound and conceptually rich essay that demonstrates knowledge of fundamental subject areas of a student’s academic discipline and specialization.

Question 2: Practical Application

Your dissertation research must contribute to theory. Your research and the theory to which it contributes may or may not have a practical benefit or application. There is no doubt, however, that there is a theory in your dissertation topic area that does have a practical application.

Part 1
Referencing at least five peer-reviewed journal articles or scholarly books, discuss views on the relationship between theory and application or practice. How can a theory guide or inform practice? What are the issues involved in translating theory into practice? Be sure to keep in mind the various conceptions of theory you discussed in Question 1.

Part 2
Referencing at least five peer-reviewed journal articles, fully describe a theory of current interest in your topic area. A theory is currently of interest if there are articles published on it in the past five years. This theory may or may not be the same as the one you examined in Question 1, Part 3. Describe a current view of the theory, not the founder’s view or a classic view. Your answer should be no more than three pages long.

Part 3
Identify at least five scholarly articles (published in the last 5 years) that address how the theory you discussed in Part 2 has actually been applied. (Draw on your response to Part 1 in order to define what you mean by an application of a theory to an actual problem or situation.) Critically evaluate the appropriateness of the uses to which the theory has been applied. Consider, for example: Are the applications premised upon an accurate understanding of the theory and its scope? Do the applications “go beyond” what the theory claims? Is the reasoning linking application and theory sound?

The structure of your paper should be as follows:
Title page
Body (10-15 pages, no more or less; APA Style; use appropriate headings for organization of the paper)
References (APA Style)

Learning Outcomes:
2. Critique existing research and design a methodologically sound approach to research in the student’s academic specialization(s).

Question 3: Research

The ability to read, understand, critique, and integrate research studies and to design a study to address a gap in the research literature is a vital tool for a doctoral student. As you write your dissertation, you may be reading hundreds of studies, many of which you will evaluate as part of a coherent literature review.

Select five empirical articles from peer-reviewed journals that:
• you consider critical to your understanding of your area of dissertation research
• all address a particular phenomenon and attempt to contribute to theory about it

Part 1
1. Describe each study, including:
• the research problem, questions, or hypotheses
• the research purpose
• type of design and elements of the design (e.g., sample, data analysis, operationalization of constructs)
• threats to validity and if and how they were addressed
• the findings and their implications

2. Critically evaluate each study: Does the author make a compelling case for the meaning and significance of the findings?

Part 2
Write a literature review that explains what is known and not known about the phenomenon based on a critical evaluation of the five studies.

Part 3
Develop a research question that addresses one of the unknowns you identified in Part 2 and sketch a quantitative or qualitative study that can answer the question about what is unknown and contribute to theory (in some sense of theory you discuss in Question 1).

Address:
• the research purpose
• type of design and elements of the design (e.g., sample, the type of data you need to collect and how you will collect it, data analysis)
• the strengths and weaknesses of your envisioned design and methods
• quantitative: threats to validity and how your design will address them
• quantitative: the constructs you will measure and what you will do in order to determine how to operationalize them (you need not identify specific measures)
• qualitative: your means of ensuring the quality of your findings
• justification for why your chosen design and methods are more appropriate for your research question than alternatives you have considered
• your methods of data analysis
• how the data you collect will enable you to answer your research question and contribute to theory

Draw on the additional resources for this course for guidance in understanding the concepts (e.g., internal validity, threats to validity, and operationalization) needed to address this question.

The structure of your paper should be as follows:
Title page
Body (10-15 pages, no more or less; APA Style; use appropriate headings for organization of the paper)
References (APA Style)

Learning Outcomes:
3. Apply relevant theory and research from the student’s specialization coursework to real life situations where he or she solves specific problems and discusses implications.

Question 4: Ethics

As you know, scientific research must be conducted in accordance with ethical principles. The ethical principles of research are defined in:

Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct
Standard 8: Research and Publication
http://www.apa.org/ethics/code/index.aspx

The National Academy Of Sciences, National Academy Of Engineering, and Institute Of Medicine Of The National Academies have a more detailed and comprehensive set of ethical guidelines for scientific research:

Committee on Science, Engineering, and Public Policy (U.S.), National Academy of Sciences (U.S.), National Academy of Engineering., & Institute of Medicine (U.S.). (2009) On being a scientist: A guide to responsible conduct in research, (3rd ed.). Washington, D.C: National Academies Press.
http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=12192

Write a paper in which you discuss how you will ensure that all aspects of your doctoral research, from literature review to conducting research, to writing the dissertation manuscript will be done with care and integrity and will meet the ethical standards of scientific research. Reference the two publications above and at least five additional peer-reviewed articles.

You must justify all the steps you will take to ensure the ethical integrity of your dissertation project and not simply describe standard practice. You must show that you have your own clear set of ethical principles and that you know how to apply them to your work. You must do more than just paraphrase ethical guidelines. You must explain specifically how you will apply published ethical guidelines and concepts to what you will do in your research (as you envision it at this point).

Be sure to address the following:
• Plagiarism
• Risk assessment
• Informed consent
• Privacy and confidentiality
• Data handling and reporting
• Mistakes and negligence
• Working with a Mentor
• Northcentral University requirements for IRB approval

Conclude your paper with your thoughts on the following statement:

Ethical scientific researchers have a commitment to all who are touched by their research—participants who share their lives and time, mentors and advisors, reviewers, future readers, and supporters and cheerleaders on the journey—to take care and do their work well.

The structure of your paper should be as follows:
Title page
Body (10-15 pages, no more or less; APA Style; use appropriate headings for organization of the paper)
References (APA Style)

Learning Outcomes:
4. Integrate knowledge of ethical practices with principles of professional practice as it applies to specific scenarios within the student’s academic discipline and specialization.

SAMPLE ANSWER

Comprehensive Exam: Question 2

Part 1

Relationship between Theory and Practice

The association existing between practice and theory happens to be an extensive discussion in various scholarly literatures that cover diverse disciplines or fields of study. According to Aertsen, Jaspaert and Van-Gorp (2013), the systematic nature of any theory is often focused on the provision of an illustrative or explanatory leverage on a given issue by offering descriptions of innovative characteristics of events/phenomena. A theory can also provide predictive utility. In relation to this, there exist three influential notions/views/opinions that hold theories to be (1) instruments of performing things in the world; (2) reducible to observables; and (3) statements concerning existing things or events. All academic studies are dependent on theory. A theory offers a model for evaluation, enhances the establishment of academic discipline/filed in an efficient manner, and is required in the applicability aspect of real world issues. As such, theory acts as a driving force towards the accomplishment of practice and research. Apart from its application is social disciplines, theory possess a revealing and practical connections to medicine, physics, biology, chemistry and other life disciplines as it contributes to significant practice, predictions and discovery explanations.

Brownlie, Hewer and Ferguson (2009) argue that the most common/famous assertion or statement is that nothing happens to be as practical as a good theory. A good theory serves as a baseline in which appropriate/best practices can be established. Despite a good theory being significant in the realization of an informed practice, and continual maturity and improvement of a discipline, it also possesses the ability to improve the practice and comprehension/understanding of practitioners. On the contrary, many scholars have continued to debate and discuss various controversies that are associated with the association between practice and theory in relation to the perceived gap between these two aspects. These scholars discuss such controversies in two dimensions, which are the viewpoint of practitioner and academic viewpoint. Chan, Chan & Liu (2012), claim that practitioners are often asking the question concerning the necessity of theories and when they can be used by such practitioners. In relation to this, the academic happens to be guided and propelled towards thorough and increasingly relevant/applicable theoretical contributions/donations that may contradict the practitioners’ demands. According to Chan, Chan & Liu (2012), a theory is the reality, and its pursuit by academicians is based/grounded on its revelatory and explanatory potential, which has the ability to invoke themes within extant literature that can result into overall shift in paradigm. According to Hatlevik & Katrine (2012), theories have claimed that in applied disciplines of leadership and management, theoretical propositions/proposals should be inspired or drive by the appropriateness of the practice for the advancement and progression of knowledge within a continuous cycle.

A research-driven theory possess a direct relevance to practice, and is beneficial to the discipline/field. However, what comprises a theoretical donation/contribution within the field or discipline of study can act as another source of contention among academicians. In relation to this, a theory-practice association is considered a communication relationship.  Sammut (2014) argues that engaged scholarship, which is considered a remedy to perceived or real gap, requires a more mode of query or investigation to convert information offered by practitioners and scholars into actions with the aim of addressing issues involved in a given discipline. Even within, methodological, theoretical and contextual situations, the use of a range of methods in testing theories informs practice, and yields substantive and valued knowledge. In relation to this, it can be argued that a theory yields research, and research produces and refines theory.

Ragozzino & Moschieri (2014) argue that there is often a tension between practice and theory. These two distinct realms are connected to each other via a process of application and abstraction. To describe this relationship/association by way of theory, it can be argues that practice reterritorializes theory and theory deterritorializes practice. As a result, this interaction can lead to a practice that is becoming a theory, and a theory that is becoming a practice. Furthermore, to describe this association by way of theory, it can be noted that practice happens to be an applied theory and theory happens to be an abstracted practice. Sammut (2014) claims that there exists an age-old issues/problem with the association/relationship between practice and theory in that individuals who are specialized in practice always argue that those specialized in theory are separated or detached from the real/actual world, which is the world of practice. On the other side, individuals who are specialized in theory always claim that those individuals who have specialization in practice lack fundamental understanding or comprehension of what they do. As such, the conflict between pro-theory and pro-practice individuals often leads to contradictory and incongruous practices.

Suddaby (2014) argues that, there exist a third group of persons that embody or embrace the becoming, the application/abstraction process. Individuals that belong to this category act as conduit in that they bridge the two worlds (pro-practice and pro-theory worlds). In relation to this, there exists a given art to explaining or describing the core of theory using words of an individual who practices. On other hand, there exist a given art to joining the essences associated with practices and submitting it to individuals who theorize. As such, building or establishing this bridge serves an act of creation, building or opening of space.

Suddaby (2014) claims that the relationship between practice and theory can be termed as dichotomous. In relation to this, the view of practice and theory as independent/dichotomous association between the mind and spirit, and the phenomenal world traces its roots in the ancient universe/world. For Plato the universe of appearances refers to the phenomenal world, which is understood or comprehended by belief and imagination. According to Ragozzino & Moschieri (2014), such a world needs to be separated or distinguished from the higher, abstract and intelligible world that is grasped via thinking, intelligence and knowledge. In relation to this, it can be argued that the Platonic views led to the ascendency of deliberate and careful observation of the phenomenal universe over the philosophical reflection. Moreover, Platonic views contributed to the establishment of a platform on which enlightenment, and the scientific, industrial and information revolutions were accomplished or attained. As a result, science, empiricism and technology displaced philosophy as primary methods through which the phenomenal universe and nature of human cognition, mind, being and feeling could be comprehended.

Issues Involved in the Translation of Theory into Practice

The association existing between practice and theory happens to be crucial in that practice informs theory and theory informs practice. However, there exist several issues, assumptions and controversies surrounding the translation conversion of a theory into practice. In the real sense, the gap between practice and theory is considered a knowledge transfer issue/problem. The initiation of information and dialogue between practitioners and scholars is a suitable method of addressing the perceived misassumption and divide between practice and theory. According to Chan, Chan & Liu (2012), engaged scholarship promoted the appropriateness of research for practice apart from its contribution to the progression of knowledge in a given domain. As such, this argument can be employed in addressing the issue of knowledge production. In addition, to claim that the knowledge of practice and theory are separate does not amount to the statement that these two elements act as substitutes to each other. However, it can be argued that practice and theory complement each other. Taking into consideration the association between application/practice and theory, a framework of four stages that explains the association between the two elements has been developed. The first phase of this model focuses on the conceptual establishment stage, which offers an initial comprehension and description of the dynamics and nature of a problem, phenomenon or issues that happens to be the focus of a theory. The second stage involves the operationalization process, which takes into consideration the explicit link between the conceptual establishment stage and practice. The thirds stage/phase involves the disconfirmation or confirmation aspects. This phase takes into consideration issues such as implementation, planning, evaluation and design of appropriate studies and research agendas to disconfirm and confirm theoretical framework, which is central to theories. Consequently, the last stage involves the application process, which tests or evaluates the theory via learning and experience from the real world context. In relation to this, practice is evaluated with the aim of certifying the relevance and significance of theory. This undertaking is executed with the aim of improving problem solving and action. According to Aertsen, Jaspaert & Van-Gorp (2013), the continuous or constant refinement and improvement is founded on the learning acquired from the application stage as theory can never be compete.

Part 2

Theory of Current Interest in My Topic Area

My topic area focuses on the investigation of the effect that the prevailing construction worker wage has on the expenses or costs of constructions of affordable housing for various seniors within California in relation to the employees’ wage rate of market construction. Taking that my topic area focuses on one of the significant role of the HRM, which is the determination of salaries and benefits of employees, the most probable theory of interest within my topic area is neo-institutional theory (Csaba, 2009). Neo-institutional theory exists among the principle theoretical perspectives that are employed in understanding organizational behaviors as studied or investigated in other organizations or as influenced by other organizations, and wider social pressures or forces, especially broader cultural beliefs and rules. Early or initial scholars/academicians focused on the theorization and documentation of the manner in which the construction of wider cultural rules and beliefs comprised actors, and enhanced organizational isomorphism, which involves the growing or increasing similarities of firms within a given field or discipline. Consequently, the scope o coverage of the theory was extended to account for the change and transformation of institutions or organizations alongside the heterogeneity of practices and actors in fields (Goldmann, 2011). Taking this aspect into consideration my topic area aims at ensuring that the current practices of the HR, which seem to embrace low construction worker wage, within the construction industry. In relation to this, my study focuses on ensuring that there is a transformation in the prevailing construction worker wage within construction industry. As such, neo-institutionalism happens to be relevant to my topic area. Being that neo-institutionalism focuses on the change and transformation of institutions several strands of views and theorizations have emerged concerning this theory. Most of these theorizations are related to the perspective of institutional logics. While neo-institutionalism is associated closely with informed debates and ideas in management and sociology, this theory draws or borrows most from social and cognitive psychology, political science, anthropology and economics.

Current Views of the Neo-Institutional Theory    

Taking into consideration the evolution that that the neo-institutionalism theory has undergone, different scholars have established different views concerning the three traditionally/conventionally recognized forms of neo-institutionalism. These forms include the sociological, historical and rational choice. Besides, there has been a fourth development of a fourth view of neo-institutionalism, which is the discursive neo-institutionalism. According to Gruchy (2011), the three form of neo-institutionalism (sociological, historical and rational choice) share one thing in common in that they are effective in explaining the aspect of continuity, as opposed to change.  Hasselbadh & Kallinikos (2009) argue that in all the three forms of neo-institutionalism, which are employed in analyzing organizations, the primary role of institutions is serving as constraints.  In relation to this, political RI (rational choice institutionalism) focuses on rational actors/agents who pursue their interests by following a logic or judgment of calculation in political institutions or organizations, which are considered systems/structures of incentives. On the other hand, HI (historical institutionalism focuses on the aspect of detailing improvement of political institutions, which are explained as regularized designs/patterns and routinized practices that are subject to a judgment of path-independence. SI (social institutionalism) focuses on social actors who act in accordance to a sense/judgment of appropriateness in political organizations or institutions, which are described as culturally-framed and socially-constituted norms and rules.

Scholars have also made advancements in including views of institutionalism that transcend the political arena. As a result, a new view of neo-institutionalism, which is the discursive neo-institutionalism, has been developed. According to Junker (2011), discursive institutionalism is a common instrument among academicians/scholars who employ discourse and ideas in explaining political change or transformation within organizational/institutional context. Hatlevik & Katrine (2012) argue that scholars who take discourse and ideas seriously should be considered discursive institutionalists. Discursive institutionalism has been associated with many names such as ideational institutionalism, constructivism institutionalism and ideational turn among others. According to Ragozzino & Moschieri (2014), discursive institutionalism happens to be an umbrella concept/idea for the vast series or range of functions within political science, which take account or records of the substantive content of views and interactive processes by which process or procedures are exchanged and conveyed via discourse. In relation to the substantive dimension/aspects of discourse and ideas, discursive institutionalism (DI) academicians/scholars consider views about what ought to be and what is at various levels of generality. Goldmann (2011) argue that the ideas of what ought to be and what is should be focused on moving from policy views. Other scholars have also focused on the aspect of paradigms or programmatic ideas. Consequently, other scholars have also considered aspects of what ought to be and what is as deeper philosophical views. According to Hatlevik & Katrine (2012), various types of ideas/views with the inclusion of cognitive views that are justified in term of necessity and interest-based logics should also be considered in the determination of aspect of what ought to be and what is. Taking these arguments into consideration, it is clear that various scholars have conflicting views concerning the theory of neo-institutionalism.

Part 3

Appropriateness of the Uses to Which Neo-Institutionalism has been applied

The systematic nature, which is associated with a theory, focuses on the provision explanatory or descriptive leverage on an issue. As such, theory contributes significantly to explaining innovative characteristics of an event. Besides, the systematic nature of a theory allows it offer predictive utility. According to Csaba (2009) and Goldmann (2011), theory that is inspires or motivated by research has a direct relevance to beneficial discipline and practice. In relation to this, the neo-institutional theory can be applied to various disciplines or fields. This theory can be applied in five different areas of practice. Gruchy (2011) employed neo-institutional model in examining human resource management practices (HRM practices). This application was done in relation to multinational corporations that operate in nations such as Russia, Finland and U.S. The application of the neo-institutional theory in addressing issues involved in the HRM practice is often common in organizations that associated with the pressure and social influence to adopt best practices. In relation to this, it can be argued that employee development act as a significant source of competitive advantages to firms, which makes it significant for companies/firms to adopt appropriate HRM practices. Taking this aspect into consideration, the neo-institutional isomorphic processes offer three separate or distinctive definitions/explanations (1) normative as a result of the dissemination of professional patterns of organizations (2) coercive as a result of the government policies/regulations and (3) mimetic where firms imitate or copy other firms. It is vital to note that neo-institutional theory does not provide a lens for generic/broad organizational construct, but offers a lens for addressing institutional pressure. In relation to this, there are two controversial issues that are associated with the study conducted by Gruchy (2011). These issues are explicit despite the researcher identifying local institutional forces from the subsidiaries of the multinational corporation investigated in the study. The first controversial issue is that HRM practices are not championed or defined by any professional agency to warrant the presence of normative pressure. The second controversial issue is that the adoption of best HRM practices is not under appropriate regulation or is not regulatory. As such, it can be argued that neo-institutional theory helps in the comprehension of the determining factors of HRM practices. However, in the study executed by Hasselbadh & Kallinikos (2009), the theoretical constructs/buildups of the neo-institutional theory do not justify the event/phenomenon investigated in the research. In relation to this, the differentiation of the normative, coercive and mimetic influences presents problems.

Hatlevik & Katrine (2012) borrowed from neo-institutional theory to offer an in-depth understanding of the agents or factors that shaped how the policies of the human resource can be adjusted in relation to the externally imposed UK policy against age discrimination. In relation to this, the researcher’s theoretical lens addressed two factors. The first approach involved the examination of the UK’s policy on HR regulations, while the second approach focused on the investigation of other forces, which impact on the introduction of policies, apart from the legislation.

Evaluation of the Appropriateness of Uses to which Neo-Institutionalism Has been Applied, and the Researchers’ Accurate Comprehension of the theory and its Scope

Researchers have succeeded in demonstrating an appropriate use or application of the neo-institutionalism theory. As a theoretical perspective, the neo-institutional theory employs or uses three isomorphic pressures in analyzing forces to which the HRM is subjected. These pressures include mimetic, normative and coercive forces. Taking into consideration the perspectives of researchers, the convergence of these three forces can be described or explained within the HR (Csaba, 2009). The first point of convergence is the coercive force introduced by the legislation of UK against age discrimination. The second point of convergence is the mimetic force introduced by agencies such as the Age Positive and Employers’ Forum on Age.  The third point of convergence is the normative force from professional networks like the Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development. As such, the study Goldmann (2011) focused on the investigation of how coercive pressure or force from new policy introduced by the UK government was viewed within firms in the UK. This goal was accomplished by focusing on the natural attitude associated with individuals with stereotypes and diverse agendas. Despite the neo-institutional theory being restricted to the study of the effects of isomorphic forces within firms, Goldmann (2011) identified that organizational aspects such as preexisting values, complexities, diverse stakeholders, interest groups and sectorial distinction complicate and delay the execution of legislations associated with HRM practices.

Despite the internal elements/factors associated with firms, the neo-institutional theory helps in the examination of events/phenomena within the theory’s proposition, with proof from the three isomorphic pressures. On the other hand, there exists a gap or need for further research on what comprises the definition of pre-existing circumstances and other internal values of HR within the context of the neo-institutional theory. Taking into consideration the views or perspective of the neo-institutional theory, Gruchy (2011) established a case study that can be employed in understanding how external and internal organizational factors determine the organizational actions. Gruchy (2011) focused on the identification of the aspect of regulation in terms of Sarbanes-Oxley Act, which comprises a force that encouraged/motivated the top managers to initiate or implement a change within ABC international. Interactions and communications with professional publications and associations comprised the normative influence. Although Gruchy (2011), could not discover the existence or presence of mimetic isomorphism, the assessment of the generators of pressures within the context of neo-institutional theory offered to separate effects. The first effect was associated with the coercive pressure of Sarbanes-Oxley that motivated top managers to mandate/command top-down information security that is related to changes across the whole/entire company. The second effect is associated with the provision of significant source of views concerning the security practices, policies and technologies that can be adopted by managers.

Whether the Researchers go beyond the Scope of Neo-Institutionalism, and Whether the Reason/Judgment Linking Theory to Application is Sound.

Despite the fact that neo-institutional theory does not describe how companies are supposed to handle conflicting demands, Gruchy (2011) employed the buildup dual influence from internal management and internal force in positing such conflicting interactions/association. Nevertheless, despite such as view being founded on assumption, it offers future research opportunities. Gruchy (2011) employed the neo-institutional theory in conducting a research/study with the aim of investigating the functions of institutional mechanisms, and moderating functions of social network systems and cultural values in dispersion/diffusion of global/universal work value within the realm/context of multinational firms or multinational organizations. Furthermore, the research proposed that the normative and regulative institutional processes have the likelihood of diffusing global work values in more efficient manner among the members or subsidiaries of the MNOs (Multinational Organizations). However, the coercive and regulative institutional processes are enacted rules and laws in specific environments that enhance certain forms of behavior or restrict others. In relation to this, the support of the regulatory or coercive force as experienced in Junker, (2011) study. According to Hatlevik & Katrine (2012), multinational organizations should incorporate the shared universal work values for them to create a working environment, where employees have the ability to coordinate their activities and communicate their views with the aim of reaching similar goals. However, approach is not applicable to or practicable with multinational organizations’ subsidiaries that are located in various cultures. Csaba (2009) offers a different perception about the international research/study involving the dispersion/diffusion of normative or coercive institutional pressures or forces with the globalized context due to jurisdictional preferences. In like manner, Goldmann (2011) hypothesized that leadership traits/characteristics, openness to cultural diversity, performance orientation and customer orientation are work values that can result into the transpiration/leaking of the global work environments. Such arguments cannot be generalized within the realm, of neo-institutional theory or the practicability of isomorphism as a result of the differences existing in institutional context nations. As such, such claims are considered an attempt to move beyond the theoretical proposal/proposition.  Besides, the researchers’ reasoning/judgments have contributed significantly to the linking of linking of theory and application in a sound manner.

References

Aertsen, T; Jaspaert, K., & Van-Gorp, B. (2013). From Theory to Practice: A Crisis Simulation Exercise. Business Communication Quarterly, 76(3) 322-338.

Brownlie, D; Hewer, P., & Ferguson, P. (2009). Theory into Practice: Mediations on Culture of Accountability and Interdisciplinarity in Marketing Research. Journal of Marketing Management, 23(5/6) 395-409

Chan, A; Chan, K., & Liu, K. (2012). A Triadic Interplay between Academics, Practitioners and Students in the Nursing Theory and Practice Dialect. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 68(5) 1038-1049.

Csaba, L. (2009). From Sovietology to Neo-Institutionalism. Post-Communist Economies, 21(4) 383-398

Goldmann, K. (2011). Appropriateness and Consequences: The Logic of Neo-Institutionalism. Governance, 18(1) 35-52.

Gruchy, G. (2011). Neo-Institutionalism, Neo-Marxism and Neo-Keynesianism: An Evaluation. Journal of Economic Issues, 18(2) 547

Hasselbadh, H., & Kallinikos, J. (2009). The Project of Rationalization: A Critique and Reappraisal of Neo-Institutionalism in Organization Studies. Organization Studies, 21(4) 697

Hatlevik, I., & Katrine, R. (2012). The Theory-Practice Relationship: Reflective Skills and Theoretical Knowledge as Key Factors in Bridging the gap Between Theory and Practice in Initial Nursing Education. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 68(4) 868-877

Junker, J. (2011). Theoretical Foundations of Neo-Institutionalism. Journal of Economics & Sociology, 27(2) 197-213.

Sammut, K. (2014). Transformative eLearning Theory and Coaching: Application in Practice. International Journal of Evidence Based Coaching & Mentoring, 1(8) 39-53.

Suddaby, R. (2014). Editor’s Comments Why Theory? Academy of Management Review, 39(4) 407-411.

Ragozzino, R., & Moschieri, C. (2014). When Theory Doesn’t Meet Practice: Do Firms Really Stage their Investments? Academy

We can write this or a similar paper for you! Simply fill the order form!

Personal Worldview Research Assignment

Personal Worldview
Personal Worldview

Personal Worldview

Order Instructions:

Day 5 respond to two of your colleagues’ postings, giving priority to those that have fewer than two responses so far. In your responses, be sure to address the following:

•Address the content of each colleague’s statement, as well as his or her alignment to the worldview types noted in the course text.

•Pose a follow-up question to each colleague for further Discussion.

•Link each colleague’s posting to other colleagues’ postings or to other course materials and concepts, where appropriate and relevant.

•Include proper APA citations for the course text, readings, and any external sources consulted in the preparation of your posting.

Colleague #1 ( Simon)
My personal worldview and research mindset

Research is the testing of a theory about something with the hope that such theory can be confirmed. Theory can also emerge from data that has been collected particularly when we are not beginning with constructs. Research helps in providing the needed information to avoid guesswork. Guess work brings about a lot of inaccuracies, which are avoided once a good piece of research work is done on a provided problem statement. The approach in the research design could be qualitative, quantitative or a combination of the two. In my own worldview opinion, a combination of qualitative and quantitative approaches is a better option to be able to gain close to accurate information. In choosing the combination approach, the key purpose or objective is to come up with procedures that aid in translating the theoretical aspects into practice (Creswell, 2009, p.5). The four worldviews or paradigms of Postpositivism, Constructivism, Advocacy/participatory and Pragmatism are aimed at providing a broad understanding from which one can chose a worldview of their choice or a combination of the above as well.

The worldview research approach I prefer is that which encourages more open-ended questioning as the researcher listens carefully to what people say or do in their life settings in this case referred to as social constructivism (Creswell, 2009, p.8). Qualitative research being alluded to here is exploratory and used when the researcher does not know the important variables to examine. My background affects the way I look at research with a search for the truth that works using mixed methods research for better problem understanding. Of course it has to be noted that the research problem or issue being studied determines the choice of the research design. My personal experience is that of making up close observation that is best realized through the qualitative approach.

Qualitative approaches that I have narrowed down to and that I prefer in my worldview, give room for being innovative, creative and encourage critical thinking as well as being open minded with a passion that leads to a study of a lot of literature while paying attention to detail. In the video, it was suggested as well that one begins qualitative to develop a phenomenon, develop some hypotheses about that phenomenon from a qualitative work that can later be tested quantitatively. Regardless of whether qualitative or quantitative method is used, it should be noted that research is an engaging and tedious process, which calls for good planning, being methodical, designing and being one’s own skeptic. A character of humility is helpful to give room for others to criticize my work.

References:

American Psychological Association. (2010). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (6th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.

Creswell, J. W. (2009). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Laureate Education, Inc. (Executive Producer). (2008). Theory. Baltimore: Executive Producer.

Colleaque #2 ( kevin)

Personal Worldview

I am a serial entrepreneur striving to break out of the job class into the business class of society through innovative, disruptive technology commercialization. Through God’s grace, I have trained in multiple industries from software, photography, and transportation to arrive at a skill set capable of handling the responsibility of leadership over employee’s lives and families. The doctoral program will complete my educational background and bring the recognition necessary to secure the quality management staff and knowledgeable funding stream for a successful startup corporation.

My worldview closely resembles the postpositivist worldview, due to my search for knowledge through trail and error methods of accepting and rejecting a hypothesis. In addition, I strongly rely on scientific data and evidence to shape a refinement to the original hypothesis, but can see an intuitive leap through the raw data, which is where my idealism side manifests. Critical realism is my true worldview, which sees tendencies and searches for the underlying general cause to the phenomenon, rather than an observable positivist solution (Bisman, 2010). Many answers are unobservable, but still hold firm in the face of challenging arguments and I seek to add to the knowledge using this research method.

Reference

Bisman, J. (2010). Postpositivism and accounting research: A (personal) primer on critical realism. Australasian Accounting Business & Finance Journal, 4(4), 3-25

***** please answer each colleague individually along with 2 references each !!!!!

 

SAMPLE ANSWER

Personal Worldview

Colleague #1 Simon

It is good that you understand what research is and the purpose it serves. In addition to this, you need to be aware that research not only confirms theories, but also enables us to come up with new ones, adjust or accept existing theories, or nullify the theory altogether (Merrian, 2009). We also avoid guess work about what we are researching on because research uses scientific principles to come up with reliable conclusions in all fields. It is through research, you should be aware, that discoveries are made and unsolved problems find answers. Being conversant with the various research designs is useful if you are to select the most appropriate one for your kind of study. Apart from the three approaches you have mentioned, you should also be aware of advocacy/participatory research, whose main goal is to bring a positive impact upon the life of the research subject (Creswell, 2009 ). Your choice of a combination of quantitative and qualitative approach, also called pragmatic approach, is appropriate since it is more flexible since you may apply the techniques that are used in both qualitative and quantitative research methods. The mixed method approach to research is also most ideal because it appreciates the facts that each method has its own limitations, and so employing both methods somehow neutralizes the likely biases. It also has the benefit of triangulation, which allows for the use of data from various sources. Worldviews are important and helps in appropriately selecting the type of research design. Social constructivism, as a world view, regards human being as living in different social realities and researcher’s goal in this case is to gain an understanding about what is being researched, as opposed to making predictions (Neuman, 200). The most preferred method of research by most social constructivists are qualitative methods, but to avoid bias because of its subjective nature and inability of generalization of results, mixed method increases research credibility. There are several questions few questions though that you need address. What research approach would you use to ensure accuracy and that you conclusions are not biased? How would you know that your theories are accurate?

Colleague #2 Kevin

Positivism worldview relies heavily on scientific evidences and this is especially suitable for you. Positivists view the world realistically and apply a great deal of science in testing of hypothesis. Your real world view is, however, critical realism, which is a pragmatic approach. Post positivists require that you carefully observe and measure objectively the reality existing in the environment (Silverman, 2010). The most appropriate research design in this case is quantitative research, since it is best suitable for your worldview preference. There is however more freedom of using other research techniques as you may prefer, as long as you meet your intentions. The data you collect here also needs to be subjected to statistical analysis. Unlike social constructivism, critical realism possesses explicit values, which are very precise.  You need to know that you need to have a hypothesis, and not necessarily one hypothesis, but several of them can be used, and you need to establish their relationships through examining the variables, since your research relies on quantitative research method (Borg, 2004).  Some questions worth considering here include what data collection method would you use for your research? What reasons would you have for your preferred data collection method? And finally, what types of questions would you include in your questionnaire?

References

Borg. B.L. (2004) Qualitative Research Methods.Boston: Pearson.

Creswell, J. W. (2009). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Merriam, S.B. (2009). Qualitative research: A guide to design and implementation. San Francisco: John Wiley and Sons.

Neuman, W. L. (2000). Social research methods: Qualitative and quantitative approaches (4th ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Silverman, D. (2010). Doing qualitative research (3 ed.): Sage.

We can write this or a similar paper for you! Simply fill the order form!

Scholarly Views on Nature and Types of Theories

Scholarly Views on Nature and Types of Theories Order Instructions: I have already sent the supporting materials.

Scholarly Views on Nature and Types of Theories
Scholarly Views on Nature and Types of Theories

Please answer the questions one at a time that provides me enough time to review.

SAMPLE ANSWER Four Comprehensive Exam Questions: Question One

Introduction to Scholarly Views on Nature and Types of Theories

Theories contribute significantly to the guiding of research/study and organizing and creating sense of findings of a research. This paper is divided into three Parts. Part I focuses on the scholarly views on the nature and types of theories, and offering a comparison and contrast of three scholarly views of what constitutes a theory. Part II focuses on revealing the scholarly literature on the association between research and theory. This part also addresses three through which research contributes to theory. Part III of the paper explains how grounded theory contributes to the reader’s understanding of my research topic. Consequently, this part proceeds to discuss and analyze two controversial areas that are associated with the grounded theory.

Part 1 Scholarly Views on Nature and Types of Theories

Examples of theories include deductive, inductive and grounded theories. Deductive theory is based on reasoning on one or more statements with the aim of reaching a logical conclusion. Inductive theory involves the movement from specific observations to the broader or wider generalizations of assumptions (Cameron, 2013). Grounded theory refers to the method of research/study that can help the researcher develop an assumption on the principle concern of a community or population being investigated, and how the concern can be processed or resolved. This theory can be employed in explaining my research as will be shown in Part III of the paper.

Various opinions exist concerning what constitutes a theory. Some researchers define theory as the association/relationship between variables, while other refers to theory as an abstract (Gelso, 2006). Other researchers such as Wacker refer to theory as a trial and error, as opposed to a systematic examination/investigation. Moreover, other authors argue that a theory reveals clearly how it is measured. As a framework for evaluation, a theory should manage to address all the primary questions that a researcher aims at answering such as what, who, where, why and when. In relation to this, it can be argues that the measurable or quantifiable dimensions of a theory arises from data and research (Amseus, 2014). Some of the measurable aspects of theory are the relationship between describable and observable data. According to Wacker, a theory refers to the association among units that can be observed in an empirical manner. Besides, this scholar adds that as sound theory aims at explaining why and how certain associations lead to certain events/phenomenon (Wacker, 1999). Some researchers such as Harlow argue that a theory is not a global or a fixed notion, but tends to evoke series of constructs. Furthermore, this researcher argues that a theory can be employed in determining a law. Modern psychology takes into consideration a broad range of use of the term theory. These uses are aligned in different levels in relation to how the term is employed in scientific explanation (Stam, 2010). As such, the establishment of theory within psychology relates directly to the manner in which methods have prepared and dispersed. Taking these aspects into consideration, it can be noted that theory differs from elements such as concept, model, paradigm and hypothesis.

A concept refers to the components or constituents of the thought, while a model refers to a composition of concepts that are employed in making individuals comprehend certain phenomena. On the other hand, a paradigm refers to a framework that contains all the accepted views concerning a given topic, the format of the directions that should be adopted by a research and how the research should be executed (Mercer, 2014). Hypothesis refers to an informed or educated guess concerning the ways in which things work. It can also refer to the tentative/uncertain statement about the association between two variables.

Scholarly Views on Nature and Types of Theories comparison and Contrast of three Views of what constitutes a Theory

The views presented by researchers about what constitutes a theory have similarities and differences. Taking this aspect into consideration, three views that can be compared and contrasted are reductionism, realism and instrumentalism. According to the view of reductionism, theories are considered reducible to observables. Realism considers theories as statements about events that exist in the real sense (Mayer, 2013). On the other hand, instrumentalism argues that theories are employed as tools of executing operation or performing thing in the world.

The three views on theory contribute significantly to the establishment of theory in the scientific discipline. Reductionism and determinism can be employed in the comprehension of theory development within psychology (Stam, 2010). As a view on theory, reductionism targeted at observable vents/phenomena. This view strives to explain and describe events and to distinguish whether such phenomena are physical or not. In addition, this view focuses on explaining and describing whether events can be accounted for within the context/realm of scientific theory or not.

Being connected to reductionism, determinism is perceived as an account of results of theories. In relation to this, determinism argues that for a given set of conditions, there exists a single outcome (Stam, 2010). As such, determinism and reductionism act a perfect reflection of methods/ways of delimiting the description of events or phenomena. According to instrumentalism, a theory refers to a tool that can be employed in comprehending the world. This view argues that the significance of a theory is founded on how effective it is to predict an event or phenomenon, as opposed to how such a theory illustrates objective reality.

While the view of instrumentalism focuses on events that exist, the view of realism focuses on finding or identifying deliverables beyond what can be observed, and establishing the knowledge that is applicable beyond a theory despite a theory being employed in grounding knowledge. Moreover, realism argues that in a situation in which there exist several explanations for a single event or phenomenon, only one out of the various theories and hypotheses can be true. In relation to the view of scientific realism, characteristics such as warfare, differentiation, parsimony and theoretical specifications are perceived as components of good theory (Gelso, 2006). Contrary to the realism view, instrumentalism focuses on the presentation of an antirealism view. Instrumentalism considers theories as devices, instruments or tools that allow scientists to move from a set of statements to observations that are predictable. In addition, while the view of realism focuses on theory validation to a greater extent, instrumentalism focuses on the aspect of discovery. Instrumentalism perceives a good theory as an outcome or product of integration. On the other hand, realism focuses on the aspect of precision.

Instrumentalism, realism and reductionism argue that a theory should be focus on addressing significant practical issues to clarify complex events or phenomena. As a result, the three views on theories have been integrated in several ways within the psychological theory (Naor & Coman, 2013). Among the three views, both instrumentalism and scientific realism have impacted significantly on mainstreaming psychological discipline theory. The integration of the two views in the psychological theory resulted from the need to establish valid theories such as those witnessed in the psychological discipline and science. In relation to this, the discipline of psychology has adapted characteristics that are promoted as components of good psychology such as delimitation, internal consistency and integration (Gelso, 2006). Within the realm of psychology discipline, instrumentalism happens to be more process-driven, and aims at identifying significant theoretical systems/ or frameworks for localized phenomena. Recently, psychology advocated for the adoption of views related to non-reductive materialism. In relation to this, materialism presents a platform on which some features or elements cannot be reduced to physical properties (Harlow, 2009). Examples of such elements include functional, informational, cultural, mental and linguistic features. In psychology, theory has embraced the need to provide an explanation for unobservable events such as cultural, mental and functional elements among others.

Part 2 Scholarly Literature on the Relationship between Research and Theory

The association/relationship between research and theory can be explained by focusing on the various research designs that are employed in developing different types of theories. As mentioned in part 1, there exist three types of theories that include descriptive, explanatory and relational theories. There exists a robust relationship between descriptive research and descriptive theory. Descriptive theories focus on the classification of specific characteristics or dimensions of groups, individuals, events or situations (Mercer, 2014). This goal is accomplishing by the summarization of the commonalities existing in discrete observations. As such, these theories often state the aspect of what is? Besides, these theories are often required when there is inadequate knowledge about the phenomenon being investigated.

There are two categories/forms of descriptive theories, which include classification and naming. A classification theory is more elaborate than the naming theory. This theory states that the characteristic or dimensions of a certain phenomenon are interrelated in a structural manner. These dimensions may be overlapping, mutually exclusive, sequential or hierarchical. As such classification theories are often known as taxonomies or typologies (Cameron, 2013). On the other hand, a naming theory refers to the description of the characteristics or dimensions of some phenomenon.

Descriptive theories are created and tested using descriptive research. This form is also known as exploratory research, and it is aimed at answering questions like:

What is this?

What are the existing features of the real world in relation to the mentioned question? Descriptive research/study may or may not employ an empirical method. Non-empirical mechanisms include historic and philosophic inquiries (Mercer, 2014). Historic research is targeted at describing an event/phenomenon that happened at an earlier time. On the other side, philosophic inquiry classifies and describes an event/phenomenon via a critical discussion.

An example of descriptive research that employs empirical methods is the observation of an event its natural setting. In these forms of research, data are often collected by non-participant or participant observation. Besides, data can be gathered by questionnaires, structured interview schedules or open-ended interviews. The raw data collected is a descriptive research may be quantitative or qualitative (Cameron, 2013). The analysis of qualitative research may be conducted using content analysis. This technique is employed in sorting data into categories that may appear during analysis. It can also be employed in sorting data into priori categories. Quantitative data are evaluated using various parametric and non-parametric measures of variability and central tendency.

Empirical descriptive research covers case studies, phenomenological studies, ethnographies, grounded theories and surveys. Case studies are systematic and intensive investigations of several factors for a few individuals, community or group. Phenomenological studies produce descriptions of human experience. Here, Investigators often collect data without priori identification of terms or preconceived expectations. As such, emphasis is place on comprehending people’s subjective and cognitive perceptions, and how such perceptions impact on behavior (Cameron, 2013). Surveys yield accurate and factual descriptions of intact events/phenomena. In the real, sense surveys employed structured instruments in gathering data. However, they may also takes into consideration the use of open-ended questions in such instruments.

There also exists a robust relationship between correlational research and relational theory. Relational theories focus on the specification of the relations that exist between dimensions/characteristics of situations, events, groups and individuals. These theories focus on explaining how parts of events relate to one another. As such, these theories can be established after the identification of the essential dimensions of an event. Relational theories are established by correlational research (Mayer, 2013). This form of research often focuses on answering questions like:

What is taking place here?

At what level do two dimensions tend to happen together?

Correlational studies employ empirical method. Such studies always need the measurement of the dimension of events in their natural settings. Surveys and interviews are the common methods employed in these studies. The collection of data is often accomplished by self-report measures and non-participant observation. Contrary to descriptive study, correlational research often employs instruments such as fixed-choice observation rating scales, checklists and standardized questionnaires. The accomplishment of this goal is often enhanced by the fact that characteristics or dimensions are known (Mercer, 2014). These techniques always yield quantitative and qualitative data. Since data must be attached to un-interpreted data to allow for the calculation of correlation coefficients, qualitative data should be categorized, and numbers assigned to those categories.

Experimental research and explanatory theory have a strong relationship. Explanatory theories supersede relational statements. As such, they focus on the prediction of associations existing between dimensions of phenomena. They also aim at predicting the dimensions of differences between groups. Explanatory theories produced and examined by experimental research. This form study always asks questions like:

What will occur if…?

Is treatment B different from treatment C?

Experimental study employs empirical mechanisms of experimentation (Bradbury-Jones & Caroline, 2014). It takes into consideration the manipulation of some events to determine its impacts on some characteristics or dimensions of another phenomenon/event. Experimentation consists of several different designs with the inclusion of pre-experiments like pretest-posttest-no control group design.

Three Ways through which Research (Quantitative and Qualitative) Contributes to Theory

Ways through which research contribute to the development of a theory are manifested in the observations, research design, case studies and hypothesis testing. Research contributes to the development of the theory via observations. In research, observations impact significantly on theories. Observations can lead to the changing of a theory when the events under observations are not in line with the theory applied in the research. Moreover, observation can lead to the confirmation of a theory in case the events being investigated are in line with theory on which the research is established or founded (Harlow, 2009). Theories often change to match the observations that are being investigated. In this way, it can be argued that a research has a greater impact on theory than the impact the theory can have on it. Research serves to influence the theory, as opposed to the theory influencing the research. In order for researchers to accomplish their objectives, they should engage in an active quality control. Besides, researchers should ensure that they monitor the relationship between observations and theory so that they can manage to tell whether the two elements match or not. In a case observations and theory do not match, researchers should ensure that they adjust the theories on which their research is founded.  One of the principle aims of researcher is to ensure that observations and theory correlate. This goal can be accomplished verifying observations followed by the determination of whether the verified observations match the selected theory. The success of a research is determined by its ability to prove or disapprove a theory. Researchers should note that theories are subject to delimitation. In relation to this, a theory can be delimited based on the aspects or dimensions of the issue being investigated (Harlow, 2009). For instance, the type of the study that has been conducted in reference to the problem under investigation can lead to the delimitation of a theory.

Research also contributes to the development of a theory via research design. Taking into consideration the research’s theory driven aspect, it can be noted that research can help in the construction of a theory. A research design affects several factors such as the association of theory construction, results of empirically based research and observed. Some of the methods and research designs that are employed in psychology are qualitative, quantitative, case study and mixed methods (Levis & Ellis, 2006). Every method of research is composed of many different tools, which can be applied in research questions. As such, the methodology of a study should focus on addressing aspects of how, where, why, when and what.

Inductive and deductive research methods determine the approach to be adopted for a research, research question’s data and research goal (Mercer, 2014). It is advisable that researchers employ mixed methods when executing their activities as such an approach ensures that they draw suitable strategies from the two methods (inductive and deductive research). These methods are vital in ensuring that researchers draw appropriate strategies from them.

Case study research and hypothesis testing contributes significantly to the establishment of a theory. While testing for hypothesis takes into consideration the testing of a single statement/account from theory against various observations, case study research focuses on the comparison of several statements to observations. In relation to this, case study research points out the matching of an observation to theory, and how such a theory can predict aspects of certain cases in an adequate manner (Mayer, 2013). Furthermore, case study research relies on many contacts between each theory and each case.

Case study research plays a vital role in the establishment of a theory. Contributions from case studies often provide new data. In established areas, case study research often contributes to incremental advances/developments in the works of previous theorists (Naor & Coman, 2013). Novel evidence that is obtained from case studies can offer theoretical insights, which can be employed in confirming or denying existing theory. In this manner, theoretical contributions establish the knowledge foundation of disciplines.

Grounded theory has been noted to relate the initial question to the course of doing research. Grounded theory refers to an iterative course in which the establishment of the theory and data gathering build on each other. Research always starts with the raising of questions that do not remain static or confine, but help in yielding the research. As such, researchers often operate from a center of theoretical concepts that are employed as baseline in adjusting and asking questions (Levis &Levis, 2006). Thus, research contributes to the establishment of a theory in a direct manner via the creation of linkages between data.

Part 3

How the Grounded Theory adds to the Reader’s Understanding of my Research Topic

Grounded theory can contribute to the reader’s understanding of my research in several ways. First, this theory ensures that the readers develop a deep understanding of the main concern of the issue being investigated in my study (Higginbottom & Lauridsen, 2014).  For example, this theory enables the reader comprehend the effect that the prevailing construction worker wage has on the costs of constructions of affordable housing for seniors within California in relation to the workers’ wage rate of market construction. Here, the principle concern is the effects of the prevailing construction worker wage on the expenses of affordable housing for seniors. Besides, the theory will also help readers comprehend or relate how Adam Smith’s invisible hand of the market, which is the base of capitalism, can help determine the market rate compensation that should be paid to construction workers, as opposed to the existing wage (Bradbury-Jones & Caroline, 2014). Second, this theory ensures that the reader develops a deep understating on how the process of data collection was achieved in my study (Cameron, 2013). My study is a qualitative research. As such, the reader can manage to comprehend the method employed in gathering data, which in turn help the reader understand the data evaluation mechanisms employed in accomplishing the objectives of the study. This theory offers a guideline on how data analysis is executed by the researcher, which helps in enhancing the reader’s understanding of the entire data analysis process (Mayer, 2013). Third, grounded theory ensures that the reader understands the structures of the existing construction worker wage via constant process of comparing it to affordable housing for seniors. This process enables the reader to understand the effects that result from the relationship between the two variables (Mello & Flint, 2009). As such, the use of grounded theory in my researcher is significant in eliminating confusions or problems that readers may encounter as they attempt to understand my research.

 Discussion and Analysis of Two Controversial Areas associated with the Grounded Theory

Grounded theory’s approach to methodology happens to face controversy. Researchers who are new to the use of this theory can experience problems in comprehending various elements associated with this approach to research methodology (Amsteus, 2014).  Besides, the existence of various versions concerning the theory’s approach to methodology can prove daunting to researchers who are new to this theory. Learning and comprehending the differences existing between the grounded theory’s methodologies can be equated to the learning of an individual’s research philosophy, which is always the determining factor in the selection of a methodology. The problem associated with learning various methodologies associated with this theory arises from the fact that terminologies employed in it always sound similar to the new researcher (Mercer, 2014). However, this problem can be addressed when such a researcher focuses on the exploration of the differences existing between such terminologies. One of the methods that researchers can employ in addressing this problem is focusing on comprehending their philosophies. Such an undertaking is vital in ensuring that researchers focus on their objectives. Moreover, another controversial area surrounding the grounded theory is the element of axial coding (Rintala, Paavilainen & Astedt-Kurki, 2014). Addressing this problem requires the researcher not to focus on the approaches to grounded theory as either wrong or right. Instead, the researcher should focus on selecting an approach that fits the goal of his or her study. This approach is significant in ensuring that the researcher avoids facing the confusions that are associated with perceiving the two aspects (grounded theory and axial coding) as bang different (Green, 2014). Focusing on the two approaches as being different often results in the researcher developing a negative attitude towards the use of such a theory in meeting his or her research objectives (Naor & Coman, 2013). As a result, a researcher may face problems comprehending how the tow aspects can be integrated to help the research attain the study’s goals.

Scholarly Views on Nature and Types of Theories Conclusion

Some examples of theories that can be employed in guiding research are deductive, grounded and inductive theories. Various views exist concerning theories. Some researchers such as Gelso (2006) consider theory as relationship between variables, while others such as Wacker consider it trial and error. Three views on theory are reductionism, realism and instrumentalism. Some of the ways through which research contributes to theory are manifested in research design, hypothesis testing, case studies and observations. In relation to this, the grounded theory enables the reader to comprehend the data analysis and data collection process of my research. It also enables the reader to gain an in-depth comprehension of the issue being investigated by engaging in a continuous process of comparing various issues being raised in the study. However, this theory presents problems to new researchers who employ this approach in their study as its methodology involves various approaches.

Scholarly Views on Nature and Types of Theories References

Amsteus, N. (2014). The Validity of Divergent Grounded Theory Method. International Journal of Qualitative Method, 13(1) 71-87.

Bradbury-Jones, C & Caroline, T. (2014). Applying Social Impact Assessment to Nursing Research. Nursing Standard, 28(48), 45-49.

Cameron, R. (2013). Lessons From the Field: Applying the Good Reporting of a Mixed Methods Study (GRAMMS) Framework. Electronic Journal of Business Research Methods, 11(2), 53-64.

Gelso, C. (2006). Applying Theories to Research: The Interplay of Theory and Research in Science. In Leong, F.T., Austin, J.T. (Eds), The Psychology Research Handbook (pp.455-465). Thousand Oak, CA: Sage Publications.

Green, E. (2014). Use of Theoretical and Conceptual Frameworks in Qualitative Research. Nurse Researcher, 21(6) 34-38

Harlow, E. (2009). Contribution, Theretical. In Mills , A, Durepos, G., & Wiebe, E.(Eds), Encyclopedia of Case Study Research(pp.237-239), Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications Inc.

Higginbottom, G & Lauridsen, I. (2014). The Roots and Development of Constructivist Grounded Theory. Nurse Researcher, 21(5), 8-13.

Mayer, J. (2013). Integrating Theories in AMJ Articles. Academy of Management Journal, 56(4) 917-922.

Mercer, H. (2014). Theory-Driven Evaluation in School Psychology Intervention Research: 2007-2012. School Psychology Review, 43(2), 119-131.

Mello, J., & Flint, J. (2009). A Refined View of Grounded Theory and its Applications to Logistics. Journals of Business Logistics, 30(1) 107-125

Naor, M & Coman, A. (2013). Theory of Constraints: Is it a Theory and Good One? International Journal of Production Research, 51(2), 542-554.

Levy, Y & Ellis, J. (2006). A System Approach to Conduct an Effective Literature Review in Support of Information Systems Research. Informing Science Journal 9(1) 181-212

Rintala, T; Paavilainen, E., & Astedt-Kurki, P. (2014). Challenges in Combining Different Data Set During Analysis When Using Grounded Theory. Nurse Researcher, 21(5) 14-18.

Stam, H. (2000). Theory. In Salkind, N(Ed), Encyclopedia of Research Design (1449).

Wacker, J. (1999). A Definition of Theory: Research Guidelines For Different Theory-Building Research Methods in Operations Management. Journal of Operations Management, 16(4) 361-385.

 

Economics theory Research Paper Assignment

Economics theory
Economics theory

Economics theory

Order Instructions:

Please use the suggested reference reading.

And add some economics theory which taught in lecture due to 1/3 marks will be based on it (list on the instructions as well), such as the Multitasking and perverse incentives, Performance measurement and appraisals, CEO compensation, Intrinsic motivation, Incentivising across the hierarchy, Relative performance and promotions. Beside just rephrase the source you have found, thank you.
Just link some of these theories to the source you got. U don’t have to put too many papers or reference in this essay. 3 or 4 are enough and link back those references to these theories.

Moreover, the introduction and conclusion are required, Just discuss why there’s a strong growth from 1990 -2007 and instances of large payments despite poor company performance,
have fuelled community concerns that executive remuneration is out of control.. maybe good training and educating? good team work and social environment? or what ever they mentioned in the reading..

Just give out some reasons and elaborate and explains or even bullshits some points. after that put some paper evidence(reference) to support the points, It does not have to be a very high level essay. im expecting a 60/100.

But the background readings and empirical in the assignment pdf must be used. and please give the internet link at the bibliography because i need to know where u find those reference.

The word limits is 1500, Im happy with 1400 as well.

SAMPLE ANSWER

Abstract

Most theories in personnel economics relate to the effects of the monetary compensation or incentives that the workers received based on the output. The major conclusions to these theories are that workers in all cases react or respond to these incentives, a concept which forms the cornerstone in personnel economic theory. To be more specific, it’s a fact that the payment received on the basis of the output expected will basically induce the workers to increase the output. (Lazear 2000) These paper looks at the connection between compensation and accounting performance. The link that exists between incentives pays and company performance. Incentive pay includes options, restricted stock payments, long term compensation and future stock performance.

Introduction

The last two decades has witness a steady rise in CEOs compensation that has not being directly related to their performance. The proponents of the agency theory and the CEO executive compensation have argued that the compensation should be in all occasions be aligned to the performance of the company. (Jensen and Murphy 1990) In Australia and Canada most of the compensation systems are based on organization performance while profit sharing is not common. (Long & Shields 2007) The current compensation strategies have pushed the workers and their CEOs to take advantage of the short term risks to make huge profits without considering the long term effect on the company. As a result of these actions most companies have taken measures to cushion the long term interest of the share holders by opting to offer long term executive compensation plans for the CEOs incentives to also act for the best interests of the share holders long term interests. The markets also do not fully incorporate the CEOs pay information at the time its made public as its intended to be a long term future incentive pay and based on future company performance.

The effects of the future stock performance in the last decade has not received any attention as a result of an implicit assumption that, given an efficient market, the investors will automatically capitalize the current present value of the company’s future performance to increase the stock price after the information on the new incentive pay goes public. (Fich and Shivdasani 2005)

These reasons may have propelled the executive compensation pay structures and incentives to rise rapidly between the years 1990 and 2007. The need to create a positive image on the company and also to influence the share prices positively besides obtaining CEOs who multitask.

However, the information on the CEO incentive compensation may not be reflected immediately on the company returns for some reasons. The first reason may be that the intrinsic compensation contracts for the CEO may in some cases incorporate both the unobservable and observable performance measures. If the performance measures that are not observable in the contract or are directly correlated with all the future performance measures that are observable then the variation in the current pay that is not basically explained by the variation found in the current performance measures that are observable should predict the future variation in all observable performance measures. (Hayes and Schaefer 2000) The extent that companies and managers draw their contracts on the net positive unobservable characteristics of the managers mostly suggests a relationship that’s positive between the pay and the future returns.

Source: Federal Reserve Economic data, St Bank of Louis,

http://www.epi.org/publication/ceo-pay-continues-to-rise/

The highest peak of average CEOs total compensation package was in 2000 at $20,172,000 and later declined to $10,394,000 in 2009. This was at the center of the global economic crisis that originated mostly from the collapse of US giant corporations due to mismanagement and financial improprieties in the years 2008 and 2009.

CEOs Total Av. Compensation $’000
1965 819.00
1973 1069.00
1978 1463.00
1989 2724.00
1995 5768.00
2000 20172.00
2007 18541.00
2009 10394.00
2010 12466.00
2011 12667.00
2012 14765.00
2013 15175.00

 

Source: FRED, St Bank of Louis,

http://www.epi.org/publication/ceo-pay-continues-to-rise/

The empirical evidence below suggest a positive link between pay and incentives is illustrated by Lazear’s classic paper that examines the Safelite Glass Company shift to piece rate system in order to retain higher productivity employees. The diagram below indicates the shift to a piece rate system from the hourly rate with minimum guaranteed compensation. The lower productivity employees will not change or alter their behavior as a result of these changes but the higher productivity employees (illustrated by indifference curves marked X) will naturally increase their production to exploit the attractive new incentives available. Lazear argues that the change in compensation will predict the average increase in production per employee and also the average production ability per employee should also increase.

Compensation Before and After at Safelite

Compensation

(Piece work with guarantee)

B                 be – k

X

A                                                                                         X

Hourly Wages

 

0              eo                                  e*                                               Output, e

-K

After examining the production records of Safelite in detail over the change in the production levels, Lazear demonstrated that the two predictions were correct. The company’s average output was actually higher where the contract on piece rate was introduced and also the average production levels of new employees hired after the introduction of the piece rate system was higher than the surviving old employees of the hourly system. (Lazear 2000)

The design perspective in personnel economics allows companies to make optimal decisions based on varied constraints. Managerial technology Y= F (K, L, HRM) where the HRM policies have to optimized by increasing the incentive prevalence over time. The challenge however is that it’s difficult to have a uniform basis to measure incentive pay and also their varying effects on the policies of the HRM.

Employees are assumed to have the cost of effort identified as C (e). It varies with different individuals as well trained and educated employees have a less C (e) while the untrained employees have a higher C (e). Heterogeneity in employee leads to additional roles of compensation contracts that will attract the desired employee and provide the comparison between higher and the lower employee productivity.

The wage contracts are in the form 1 = α + βy. If we assume that C (e) is linked to the output and the workers options are set outside the options that are zero level utility.

There are basically two types of employees. There are employees who are risk neutral and those with the standard risk whose utility is neutral. They are identified with the following function

Ui = w – Ci (e), I = l, h

The relationship between the high CEO pay and the decline in company returns may be due to the less transparent nature of the CEOs non-cash stock option components of the compensation. Manager’s use of camouflage incentive compensation strategy to extract rent from the shareholders. For instance, the real value of the options payable may actually be distorted by such practices as option backdating and repricing. (Narayan & Seyhun 2008)

Most deferred compensations are mostly not disclosed. The relative performance and promotion is based on wage dynamics. If the deferred future pay which is mostly uncertain is also correlated with the pay that’s reported and made public then a relationship will exist between the pay and the returns in future. This kind of relationship however spells an uncertain future where the investors may under-react to the non-cash compensation just as much as they have under-reacted to other events on company affairs. (Kadiyala & Rau 2004) These would imply that there is a positive relationship that exists between the incentive compensation and the future performances of the stock prices.

The companies that compensate their CEOs highly seem also to experience the highest returns and performance levels. (Core, Holthausen and Larcker 1999) There other CEOs who may land on high compensations based on sheer lack or due to popular press. For example, companies would also like their CEOs to be ranked among the highest paid CEOs in the world by the Fortune magazine. Most companies would not allow their investments to be managed by CEOs who are below average or compensation that are below the standard market rates. These combinations of glamour that has been characterized by very high returns and even higher operating performance has been publicized to attract the companies to pay the best they can afford as its associated with the star effects that high pay produces the best CEOs globally hence the investors react by investing more in such firms whose shares then rise. These misconception has led to the some firms reduced performance as some CEOs are chosen based on other qualifications and considerations not just on merit alone. The inability of the shareholders to distinguish merit or skill from luck has led to the negative relation or notion between the executive CEO pay and the company’s future returns.

Finally highly paid CEOs are mostly overconfident which leads to higher pay demands. They later embarked on wasteful empire building strategies that lead to wealth destroying activities hence the negative relation between the CEO incentives for high compensation and the negative future company returns.

References

Core, J.E., Holthausen, R.W. and Larcker, D.F., 1999, Corporate governance, chief executive officer compensation, and firm performance, Journal of Financial Economics 51, 371- 406

Fich, E.M. & Shivdasani, A., 2005, The impact of stock-option compensation for outside directors on firm value, Journal of Business 78, 2229-2254

Federal Reserve Economic data, St Bank of Louis,

http://www.epi.org/publication/ceo-pay-continues-to-rise/

Hayes, R.M. & Schaefer, S., 2000, Implicit contracts and the explanatory power of top executive compensation for future performance, Rand Journal of Economics 31, 279-293.

Jensen, M.C. & Murphy, K.J. 1990, Performance pay and top-management incentives, Journal of Political Economy 98, 225-264. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2937665

Kadiyala, P. & Rau, P.R., 2004, Investor reaction to corporate event announcements, Under-reaction or over-reaction? Journal of Business 77, 357-386.

Lazear, E.P., 2000, Performance Pay and Productivity, The American Economic Review, Vol. 90 No. 5 Dec 2000.

http://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/2677854?uid=2&uid=4&sid=21104907569767

Long, T.R. & Shields, J.L., 2007, Performance pay in Canadian and Australian Firms: a comparative study. http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09585190500298370#.VE7MNRYXKso

Narayanan, M. P. and Seyhun, H.N., 2008, The Dating Game: Do managers designate grant dates to increase their compensation, Review of Financial Studies 21, 1907-1945

We can write this or a similar paper for you! Simply fill the order form!