– Word Length: Approximately 2400 words
– 1 ½ spacing. (Paragraphs)
– 12 pt font
– Single Sided Paper
– Verdana
– Referencing Style: Harvard or APA is satisfactory.
– Please remember that you will need to have at least Four (4) varying references. For example: Journals, WebPages, Newspaper articles and Text books
– You will need to include: Reference List and an Appendix.
SAMPLE ANSWER
Unethical Nature of the Internet – Private Information
The internet has been widely embraced in the society today, as it has become an indispensable tool of managing communications, interactivity, and connectivity. The discovery of the internet has completely altered the way people live and work specifically in terms of entertainment, shopping and communication. The internet makes it possible for people to live inexpensively by making it possible for them to access news and information (Merkow & Breithaupt, 2002). However, with only a small amount of carelessness, individuals could misappropriate their private information and thereby compromising their security and privacy. This paper analyses the ethical aspects that have been brought about by the internet. First, there is an introduction to the concepts of privacy and ethics. Second, there is a discussion on the ethical issues that surround the internet in the form of privacy in areas of e-commerce, internet search engines, and social networking. Finally, measure to resolve the ethical issues are highlighted for use by the government, internet users and professionals.
Ethical issues on the internet
Ethical actions are those practices that may be termed as acceptable by the general public. One behavior that is regarded as ethical is that of ensuring that the privacy of others is observed (Carroll, 2006). Privacy is the right of doing own things without interference. With the rapid growth of the internet, the gathering, storage, retrieval, and dissemination of personal information has become more inexpensive and efficient. There have been issues that have been raised in regard to the accessibility, and manipulation of private information. If an individual’s private information in uncontrolled in terms of usage, circulation and release, then their privacy has been compromised. The public generally dislikes all actions that would lead to the misappropriation of information of private information. The presence of such possibilities on the internet raises the concerns of internet users with regard to the safety of their private information while they are online. During online shopping, using search engines and logging into social networking websites, private information may be leaked unknowingly.
E-Commerce Websites
In an attempt to offer more personalized services e-commerce websites have increasingly included more personalized features. This has served to create more steadfast relationships with customers. It has also increased online sales significantly on a per-customer basis. Survey data indicates a tendency of individuals to appreciate personalization. On the other hand, it has raised privacy concerns, which range from discomfort especially about search engines offering information about their most frequent purchases to concerns about who may get access to this information, with more specific fears of identity thieves, co-workers and government (Merkow & Breithaupt, 2002). Users are also required to offer their personal data at a website if they need to get personalized services. This raises concerns about the information. Sometimes users may turn down such offers on the basis of their privacy. There are various forms of personalization in e-commerce that are regarded a threat to the privacy of individuals.
Implicit and explicit data collection
Implicit data collection refers to that data, which is inferred based on the user’s habits on the internet (Merkow & Breithaupt, 2002). It is collected based on the queries placed by a user on the internet, browsing history and purchase history and may be used to offer further information to the user.
Explicit data collection, on the other hand, is based on the information that is obtained directly from the user (Merkow & Breithaupt, 2002). The user provides information about his demographics, ratings and preferences. Recommender personalization involves the user by requiring them to rate certain items in the order in which they interest them. Other sites require users to customize their pages according to their personal preferences.
Duration
Session or task focused personalization – This method places adverts on sites that relate to them. Adverts may also be provided based on previous actions. If a user buys items that relate to tennis, more items in the tennis category are presented.
Profile-based personalization – Some personalization systems create user profiles and continually add information that is provided either explicitly or inferentially every time the user visits the website (Merkow & Breithaupt, 2002). Cookies or login details may be used to access the website and to recognize returning users.
User involvement
User initiated-some websites require visitors to select customizations in the form of weather forecasts for their region, stock tickers, or news of interest. Users may also provide information about page layout that best suits them or the bandwidth constraints and require that their web pages are accordingly optimized.
System initiated-Every user has their content customized according to the information they provide either explicitly or inferentially. Users may be allowed to opt out of such customizations (Riedl, 2001).
Reliance on predictions
Prediction based – User’s inferred or explicit ratings may be used by the websites to generate interest based on the profiles of other users. Once the system discovers users with similar profiles, such information may be used to offer recommendation to both users interchangeably (Riedl, 2001). While not all recommendations end up as sales, they make the user get the feeling of being understood.
Content based – If a user expresses interest in one item or makes a request, they may get further recommendations based on such requests (Scassa, 2014). The request is used as a basis for determining other related likes so that the retailer attempts to satisfy them.
Privacy Risks
Some sites use a variety of these methods to maximize user experience. A good example of such sites is Amazon. There are various ways that e-commerce poses risk to user privacy (Carroll, 2006).
First, there is unsolicited marketing on the internet. While unsolicited market may be one of the less severe risks on the internet, it is still among one of the most mentioned risks on the internet (Fritsch, 2013). The risk therefore amounts to a sufficient concern for users who do not want unwarranted marketing. It has even led to the decision by some users not to engage in e-commerce. Users are also concerned that the information provided by them during purchases may be used to make targeted communication or may be made to other companies to make use of on targeted marketing campaigns. Furthermore, users fear that as a company gets access to more of their private information, it may get more interested in advertising to them.
Individuals are also uncomfortable about the automated nature of customization on the internet. Sometimes as websites try to figure out the needs of their users, they figure out needs that are completely uninformed (Levmore & Nussbaum, 2010). In some cases, individuals are not comfortable with the possibility of the information of such advertisements getting into the wrong hands and drawing wrong conclusions. Regardless of whether the company makes such wrong inferences, some people are simply uncomfortable with the possibility of being ‘watched’.
Secondly, price discrimination is another problem that arises from information given online. While there are possibilities that both the company and the consumer benefit from price discrimination, the response of consumers to price discrimination is more often negative (Jakubiak, 2010). Consumers are often concerned about both the aspect of being treated differently from other people and that of being charged more highly. Price discrimination also involves the diversion of more private information.
Thirdly, there is risk that user information is accessed by other users on the same computer (Riedl, 2001). Once a computer user accesses a website using login details, the computer is able to keep the private information in the form of cookies such that other users may be use the computer to access the website unheeded.
There is also the risk of the information in the phone being used against them in a court of law. Internet records are increasingly being used as evidence in a wide variety of cases. In cases where the character of the user is questionable, the information in user profiles, the content of their posts and their purchases may be used against them.
Information Privacy in Social Networking
Social networking is another great invention that is associated with the internet. Social networking sites allow individuals to create personal profiles and share such information publicly (Levmore & Nussbaum, 2010). While considering putting such information online, the user must consider the level of privacy that the user is diverging. If the individual fails to utilize the privacy settings when posting such information, their privacy is compromised. In such cases, any internet user is able to access their information without restrictions. The user is however able to use the privacy settings to limit the number of people who have access to every part of their profiles.
The real concern starts when individuals allow strangers or people who would not be trusted with their private information to access it (Levmore & Nussbaum, 2010). If there is no proper control of private information, there may be unethical attempts to use it. The risks may include blackmailing, price discrimination, embarrassment, physical stalking, and identity theft (Solove, 2007).
As noted above, one of the risks associated with social networking is stalking. A social networking profile contains information about the home location as well as the location of individual posts (Jakubiak, 2010). Users may also opt to share their location and hence expose themselves to burglary, robbery or even harassment. The possibilities that such information may be used to the advantage of criminals makes social media an ethical issue.
Information Privacy in Search Engines
Social networking sites are required to provide users with links to websites that contain information that is relevant to them. The topics vary with the interests of the user in regard to what information they need (Jakubiak, 2010). Search engines also make it possible for one to access private information that is placed on any platform online. People however are uninformed that their private information is contained on the database. Even in situations where the user is aware of such information being available on the database, their privacy is compromised when their information is obtained for unethical reasons.
The use of search engines further gets complicated as it even makes available some information whose privacy is limited. Such information includes membership of certain groups on social media even in cases where membership is limited (Levmore & Nussbaum, 2010). If the user was unwilling to share that information, then their information is compromised. Furthermore, such information may be used against them in different scenarios.
Measures to counter the ethical implications on the internet
As shown above, the internet has many ethical implications. While it may be used to do activities that are valuable to individuals and to the society at large, it also comes with a variety of challenges in information privacy (Levmore & Nussbaum, 2010). There are three major parties that must get involved in the process of controlling the problem of information privacy on the internet.
First, the government should create legislations intended for the management of various aspects of the internet. Governments should create legislations that limit the manner in which private information may be obtained and shared without their permission (Levmore & Nussbaum, 2010). Legislations will also aid to mend the damage done by carelessness at personal levels. If a global privacy policy is generated (probably with the assistance of the UN) the public will stand better protected from information privacy issues.
Self-protection by users
Users cannot rely solely on government legislations to deal with the issue of information privacy. It is also important that users participate in the process of self-protection by taking a variety of measures:
Private information should only be provided consciously to websites. Users should explore the purpose for which their information is required on a website and whether such information will be shared with other entities.
It is important that users use privacy settings to limit the accessibility of their private information. Furthermore, users should limit the information shared on these websites to limit their vulnerability on the internet.
Apply complex and varied passwords to protect personal information on websites on the internet. This will limit access of personal profile information and associated elements. It will also limit the number of profiles a hacker is able to hack.
Enhance security measures by using firewalls and browsers to limit accessibility of privacy information.
Professionals
Professionals can also aid in minimizing the impact of information privacy on the internet. They should minimize the amount of information provided as well as the ways in which they use the personal information so obtained (Jakubiak, 2010). They should ensure that they do not get into the middle of privacy conflicts, as this is capable of limiting the deliverability and even removal from their job positions for being either unethical or controversial.
Professionals should also practice various measures to ensure that user information is secured:
Enable collection of specific information that is important for them
Ensure that information is updated by users every once in a while to eliminate to ensure that the information in their possession is accurate
Ensure proper communication about the use of the collected information and then only ensure that information is only used for the intended intentions.
In conclusion, the internet is an important tool in our everyday lives. It should, therefore, be managed and controlled to ensure that it will be in use for a long time. The information presented by internet users should also be managed to ensure that user data is always fully secured. The internet has become a threat to information privacy. This has become an ethical issue in that some private information may be misappropriated. Various platforms pose a risk to privacy on the internet. These include e-commerce, search engines and social media. To resolve the issue, various parties should be involved. The government should create regulations to govern the internet and the way the information is collected and shared online. Individuals should increase their awareness of internet risks so as to avoid them. Finally, professionals should promote ethical practice to avoid conflict with their employers, the law and the public.
References
Carroll, J. (2006). Privacy. Detroit: Greenhaven Press.
Fritsch, L. (2013). The Clean Privacy Ecosystem of the Future Internet. Future Internet, 5(1), 34-45. doi:10.3390/fi5010034
Jakubiak, D. (2010). A smart kid’s guide to Internet privacy. New York, NY: PowerKids Press.
Levmore, S., & Nussbaum, M. (2010). The offensive Internet. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
Merkow, M., & Breithaupt, J. (2002). The E-Privacy imperative. New York: AMACOM.
Nazario, J., & Kristoff, J. (2012). Internet Infrastructure Security. IEEE Security & Privacy Magazine, 10(4), 24-25. doi:10.1109/msp.2012.99
Riedl, J. (2001). Personalization and privacy. IEEE Internet Comput., 5(6), 29-31. doi:10.1109/4236.968828
Scassa, T. (2014). Privacy and Open Government. Future Internet, 6(2), 397-413. doi:10.3390/fi6020397
Solove, D. (2007). The future of reputation. New Haven: Yale University Press.
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Write 300 words about the law and journalism using the information attached to the order.
SAMPLE ANSWER
Law and Journalism
Law structures the manner in which people interact within a set of social norms. This way, law is a defining aspect for communities and it determines who belongs. Law is a very important societal aspect because it reflects the aspirational norms and rules of the community it regulates. It only maintains legitimate authority if it can play its role effectively. Journalism faces similar problems because its professional projects becomes increasingly blurred and aligned with business. Law has an upper authority on journalism because it regulates the amount of information that should be conveyed on media and dictates the scope of a journalist’s work (Breit, 2014).
According to the General Principles of the Press Council, news and comments should be presented in a manner that is fair and respects the privacy and sensibilities of people, although this does not mean that some matters which are on the public record or significantly in the public interest should be omitted. Privacy Principles require journalists to ensure when gathering news, they do not cause undue intrusions on the privacy of people and that public members caught up in newsworthy events should not be exploited (The Sydney Morning Herald, 2014).
The media faces numerous challenges, with the conventional business models thrown into turmoil by new media platforms. Although from the outsider perspective, there has been a minimal number of cases of journalists being persecuted for contempt of court, from the insider perspective there are many issues that deserve professional security and reflection. There are career consequences that arise from journalists being persecuted for contempt of court and having a criminal record. Breit (2011) notes that media publications have received massive criticism for the traumatizing of victims of crime, inserting pressure on proceedings, affecting the impartiality of jurors and undermining the confidence of the public in the judicial system.
References
Breit, R. (2011). Professional Communication: Legal and Ethical Issues, 2nd ed. Lexis Nexis, Butterworths: Australia.
Write 300 words about the professionalism of journalism using the information attached to the order.
SAMPLE ANSWER
The Professionalism of Journalism
Breit (2011) views a profession as an occupation which has assumed a dominant position in the marketplace and therefore it gains control on the determination and substance of its own work. Sometimes, a profession is defined in terms of the traits it reveals, such as applying specialized knowledge to certain kinds of work, exercising some levels of autonomy and governance, wielding power, portraying oneself as valuable to the society as a whole and to those using professional services, and adopting a formal education process through a tertiary or university level institution.
Although media production is not currently under a single professional body, it can also be regarded as structured in the same way as PR, journalism and law. Journalists are professionals because they relay information, opinions and ideas. They aim at searching, disclosing, recording, questioning, entertaining, suggesting and remembering. Journalists give a practical form of freedom of expression. While most journalists work in private enterprise, all of them have these public responsibilities. Thus, one thing that defines communication media practices as professions is the call to a higher, moral, ethical function. However, due to the fact that a lot of journalist material is supplied by PR firms, it is usually the case that journalists need to deflect criticism that their resources are less objective, leading to the competition between journalists and PR people. This detracts from professional legitimacy (Breit, 2011).
To promote a sense of professional practice in journalism, it would be important to shift the pre-training for communication media practices into universities, as has happened with nursing. The compulsory teaching of such courses as Media, Law, Ethics is another signal that professional standards are being taught. However, as Breit (2011) points out, communication media practices cannot be fully likened to engineering or medicine in regard to an objective set of methods.
Reference
Breit, R. (2011). Professional Communication: Legal and Ethical Issues, 2nd ed. Lexis Nexis, Butterworths: Australia.
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Write 300 words about the ethics of journalism using the information attached to the order.
SAMPLE ANSWER
The Ethics of Journalism
Ethics refers to a set of prescriptive virtues, values, principles and rules of character which inform and guide intrapersonal and interpersonal conduct, that is, the conduct of people toward each other and toward themselves. Aristotle viewed character as a quality that could help a person in making a persuasive argument. Before character, it is important to start with duty, which is one of the key defining features of ethics (Breit, 2011).
From a deontological perspective, good actions are determined by obligations and duties, regardless of consequences. Deontological theories consist of various approaches including social contract, rights theory, and traditional duty theory; the prima facie duties and the categorical imperative. Immanuel Kant emphasized the aspect of reason as a basis of morality, that focuses on rational decision-making in order to show what a person should do whether the action is universal, in respect for persons or in respect for the autonomy of others (Breit, 2011).
Utilitarianism is considered the most influential consequentialist theory of ethics. Jeremy Bentham suggested that an action, intention of principle must be judged by its overall immediate outcomes. From a consequentialist perspective, there has been a shift from the individual, not to a group, but to rather an elite, who is in a position of relative power. Before carrying out a certain action, a journalist asks himself such things as whether the intended action might cause harm, whether someone will be denied legal or moral rights, and whether everyone in the situation has been treated impartially.
The human aspects of journalism and public relations have a close connection to the ethic of care, which emphasizes the value of empathy for others and human relationships. Thus, when responding to an ethical problem, a care ethicist needs to determine whether the action was genuinely related to the needs of others. The focus in ethical decision making is on understanding others that is, acknowledging the needs of others and caring responsively, competently, and responsibly (Breit, 2011).
Reference
Breit, R. (2011). Professional Communication: Legal and Ethical Issues, 2nd ed. Lexis Nexis, Butterworths: Australia.
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Introduction;
1. Say which act you are researching
say which company you have chosen and why like eg like Vodafone , Coles , Woolworths any company of our choice.
what are the companies policies in brief mention.
2. Explanation of act i.e Australian human right commission act 1986 brief summery do not copy and paste.
who is the act designed to protect and what are the powers.
3. How does the act promote diversity in work force, give examples.
4. diversity within the company you have chosen.
Summary of companies diversity and their policy.
explanation in details of how act promote diversity example – mention any diversity program
5 conclusion
Summary of point 2,3,4 stated above.
also provide recommendations.
6. Must be referenced font style Arial .
size – 12 life spacing 1.5 heading in bold, text not bold.
SAMPLE ANSWER
Australian Human rights commission Act 1986
Introduction
The study is aimed at evaluating the act that was enacted in Australia in 1986 concerning the rights of human beings. To aid on the research of this paper, Woolworths Australia has been chosen as the company in focus. Woolworths Australia was chosen because of the fact that its employment policies and employee codes of conduct were easily available. It was also chosen because of its dynamic employee policies and the inspirational example it has shown for equal opportunity employment by its inspirational employment of people with disability, of different races, genders, and ages.
Background information of Woolworths Company
The company operates under clearly outlined rules and regulations that govern how they do their employee recruitment. In this code of conduct, employees are expected to demonstrate high degrees of integrity, trustworthiness, and honesty at all times. They are also required to put their best foot forward when they are representing the company even outside the working hour. In addition, each employee is required not to engage in immoral behaviors like drug abuse especially when they are at work. As a general rule, employees are required to use decent language, behave in a decent manner and should not misuse company resources such as the standard issue employee discount cards. In this digital year, they are also required to respect their fellow colleagues and not harm then in any way by posting any malicious comments about them or the company online.
The Australian Human Rights commission
The Australian Human Rights Commission Act was created in order to promote equal rights and an acceptance of equal and fair treatment in the workplace. It was also mandated to ensure the compliance of international covenants and declarations in which Australia is signatory to. Its major role was to handle discriminatory complaints in Australia as covered by the federal anti-discrimination legislation. Furthermore, the acts covered included the act that protects people being discriminated on the basis of their race, sex, disability or age. The commission was also mandated, however, with limited power to investigate and to conciliate complaints of employment discrimination as covered by the ILO Convention Concerning Discrimination in respect of Employment or Occupation.
The Act was, therefore, necessary to protect vulnerable people against discrimination on the basis of age, color, race or nationality, religion, sex and sexual orientation, pregnancy, marital status, social origin, criminal record, medical record, physical, mental, intellectual, or psychiatric disability, and impairment of any kind, political opinions or even trade union activities.
The act that protects the rights of human beings in Australia does so through the encouragement of people from diverse backgrounds working together in several ways: It contains within itself very strong provisions that support a diversified workforce and promotes the reflection of the entire diverse Australian community in the workplace (Australian Human Rights Commission Act, 2014). The section on the promotion of employment equity also goes on to explain the need for the establishment of a diverse workforce. With regard to the fulfillment of this Act, Woolworths limited is also committed to providing equal opportunities for all employees in the workplace free from bullying, discrimination, and harassment.
Woolworths Limited role in protecting Human Rights
Woolworths limited offers equal employment opportunity to everyone is always in the forefront championing for the protection of the rights of human beings. This is enhanced by the company’s employment handbook which outlines clearly how each employ has to behave at the work place concerning race, age, color, sex, sexuality, religious beliefs, political opinions and disability. The company also opposes discrimination in any way including discriminatory harassing and bullying behavior such as body language, gestures, verbal humiliation and even sexual harassment. Physical molestation and the use of vilifying behavior such as inciting hatred and inciting others to have contempt about other workmates attributes is strictly prohibited and may result in disciplinary action and even termination of employment. The company also ensures that every employee at Woolworths work by the principles of anti-discrimination with no fear of retribution should any complaint be made on the grounds of discrimination.
Woolworths as a company is very strict in its rules and regulations and ensures that the right of every worker is protected. The fact that the company has put effective anti-discrimination strategies in place is a good practice, which is good for business as it improves employee productivity and fosters a cohesive workforce. It also helps to build the morale of the workforce and adds to the bottom line, thereby building the reputation of the company. A discrimination-free work environment also ensures that employee turnover is reduced and the best people are gotten for the job (Australian Human Rights Commission Act, 2014).
Conclusion
From the study, it is very clear that each human being is treated with the utmost respect that they deserve. For instance, in a recent Australian census report that was conducted in 2011, it was noted that many Australians have native origins abroad with more than fifty percent arising from Europe and ten percent from Asia. In the 2011 census, 21.5 million Australians were male, which represented 49.4 percent of the population, while 50.6 percent represented the female gender. The census also noted that of all the population, the original Australians being of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander decent made up of 2.5 per cent of the population. In a different 2012 disability survey, it was estimated that nearly 4.2 million Australians who represented twenty percent of the population had a disability.
Furthermore, Australian Human Rights Commission Act has ensured that discrimination at the workplace is reduced as much as possible in Australia. This has been done through provision of strict rules that encourage gender equality at the work place. As a representative measure, it is expected that in the Woolworth workforce, for example, should have a balance between the genders with half of the workforce being male and the other half being female. Out of a population of one hundred employees, twenty should be employees with a disability and at least three should be of aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander decent.
Variable relationships are very important in quantitative research. They tell researchers what effect different variables have upon one another. One of the easiest ways to display relationships between variables is through a cross-tabulation (cross-tab). A cross-tab is simply a chart that shows frequency or distribution of one or more variables for every category of another variable. Stated another way, a cross-tab is a joint frequency distribution of observations on two or more sets of variables. These statistical observations can be presented by numeric frequency, percentages, or both, depending on which is most useful given the specific data context.??For this Application Assignment, perform a cross-tabulation on the data provided in the handout “Week 10 Dataset” such that property crime is displayed as a rate per student population. Though Excel is not the only software that can be used to perform a cross-tabulation, it is used here because it is a widely available program. The handout entitled, “Cross-Tabulation in Excel” contains instructions on how to complete the task in Excel using two different methods.??The assignment (2–3 pages):
• Using Excel, perform a cross tabulation on the data provided in the Week 10 dataset.
• Explain what you can conclude from the output of the cross tabulation.
• Include your outputs in your Application Assignment document. (Copy and paste them from Excel into your Word doc.)
Support your Application Assignment with specific references to all resources used in its preparation. You are to provide a reference list for all resources, including those in the Learning Resources for this course.
Note: Please use the course text as one of the references for this assignment, AND the other articles on the attached files sent by email.
SAMPLE ANSWER
The Pivot table below, shows the total crimes and various categories of crimes committed in each college and totals for all the colleges. The information could help college authorities to know which crimes recur frequently.
College
Sum of Crime Total
Sum of Forcible Rape
Sum of Aggravated Assault
Sum of Arson
Sum of Property Crime
Abalone University
35
5
12
1
17
Franklinville College
4
0
2
0
2
Marie Louis College
14
2
4
0
8
Robert Long College
9
0
1
0
8
Simon State
42
3
5
1
33
Grand Total
104
10
24
2
68
Table I
(Jelen, 2010)
The pivot table below shows student enrolment and the number of crimes committed in each college
Table II
College
Sum of Student enrolment
Sum of Crime Total
Abalone University
10486
35
Franklinville College
989
4
Marie Louis College
2301
14
Robert Long College
3467
9
Simon State
20573
42
Grand Total
37816
104
(Jelen, 2010)
Table III
College
Sum of Student Enrollment
Sum of Crime Total
Crime total as a percentage of student enrollment
Abalone University
10486
35
0.33%
Franklinville College
989
4
0.40%
Marie Louis College
2301
14
0.61%
Robert Long College
3467
9
0.26%
Simon State
20573
42
0.20%
Grand Total
37816
104
The pivot table below shows the grand totals of all the categories of crimes, crime totals and student enrolment arranged in a descending order
Table IV
College
Sum of Student Enrolment
Sum of Crime Total
Sum of Forcible Rape
Sum of Aggravated Assault
Sum of Arson
Sum of Property Crime
Simon State
20573
42
3
5
1
33
Abalone University
10486
35
5
12
1
17
Robert Long College
3467
9
0
1
0
8
Marie Louis College
2301
14
2
4
0
8
Franklinville College
989
4
0
2
0
2
Grand Total
37816
104
10
24
2
68
(Jelen, 2014)
The pivot table below indicates the various categories of crime totals, student enrolment, and various categories of crimes as a percentage of the grand total in each category.
Table V
College
Sum of Student Enrollment
Sum of Crime Total
Sum of Forcible Rape
Sum of Aggravated Assault
Sum of Arson
Sum of Property Crime
Abalone University
27.73%
33.65%
50.00%
50.00%
50.00%
25.00%
Franklinville College
2.62%
3.85%
0.00%
8.33%
0.00%
2.94%
Marie Louis College
6.08%
13.46%
20.00%
16.67%
0.00%
11.76%
Robert Long College
9.17%
8.65%
0.00%
4.17%
0.00%
11.76%
Simon State
54.40%
40.38%
30.00%
20.83%
50.00%
48.53%
Grand Total
100.00%
100.00%
100.00%
100.00%
100.00%
100.00%
(Jelen, 2010)
Report of findings
Table I above shows the total crimes committed in all the colleges which was 104 in total.It also shows the total number of crimes committed in each category of crimes. Table I shows that property crimes were higher than all other crimes at 64 followed by aggravated assault at 24, then forcible rape at 10. The least number of crimes committed at the colleges was arson at only 2 incidences. College administrators can therefore put in place measures to address property crimes which are likely to recur more frequently than the other categories of crimes. Table II shows the relationship between student enrollment and the number of crimes committed. From Table II, it can be observed that the higher the student enrolment the higher the numbers of crimes are committed. For example Simon State with a student enrolment of 20,573 recorded the highest number of crimes at 42 whereas Franklinville College with an enrolment of 989 had only 4 crime incidences. However, this information could be misleading judging by the percentage number of crimes per student enrolment as shown in Table III. Marie Louis College which had a student enrolment of 2301 has a higher percentage of crime occurrences at 0.61% as compared to Simon State which had 0.20% but with a higher student enrollment of 20,573. Franklinville College has a crime incidence ratio of 0.40% to student enrollment. If the same ratio at Franklinville College and Marie Louis College was applied to Simon State, then Simon State would have recorded higher crime incidences than the 42 incidences recorded. The problem of crime is more severe in Marie Louis College than in the colleges with higher enrollment.
Table IV shows the college arranged in an ascending order depending on the crime rates and student enrolment. At the top of the table is Simon State which had the highest number of student enrolment and the highest incidences of crimes followed by Abalone University and so on. The last college is Franklinville College which had the least student enrolment and the least number of crimes recorded. Table V presents the percentage number of crimes, student enrolment and various categories as a total for each category. From the table Simon State had the highest number of student enrolment at 54.40% whereas Franklinville College had the least at 2.62%. Simon State also recorded the highest incidences of crime at 40.38% whereas Franklinville College recorded the least number of crimes of the total crimes recorded in all the colleges at 3.85%.Abalone university recorded the highest number of forcible rape, aggravated assault and arson crimes as compared to other colleges at 50.00% of all crimes committed in these crime categories. Simon State recorded the highest number of property crimes of all other colleges at 48.53%. Abalone University administrators should check forcible rape, aggravated assault and arson because they are more likely to recur. Simon State should focus more on tackling property crime to bring down crime incidences within its precincts.
It is critical that the writer properly respond to all the requirement of this paper.The writer must clearly use APA 6th edition for this paper including all headings where necessary.
Loan Evaluation
As a practitioner-researcher, you will apply knowledge to real-life situations. In the following scenario, assume you are a loan officer for a bank and the owner of a small business approaches you regarding a loan. Consider the following questions as you formulate your decision:
• What financial ratios would you examine and why?
• Is there other information, in addition to the ratios, you would want to obtain from the business owner before making your decision on the loan?
• How would your answer change if it were a larger company seeking the loan?
Resources;
• Articles
• Graham, J., Harvey, C., & Rajgopal, S. (2006). Value destruction and financial reporting decisions. Financial Analysts Journal, 62(6), 27–39. Retrieved from Business Source Premier database.
Senior corporate executives make decisions as to which performance measurements to use in their financial reporting. As these reports affect the company’s stock market performance, the authors of this article explore the widespread practice and impact of executives opting to use factors which may make the company appear successful, while in actuality, they may cause the destruction of value.
• O’Connor, J., Priem, R., Coombs, J., & Gilley, K. (2006). Do CEO stock options prevent or promote fraudulent financial reporting? Academy of Management Journal, 49(3), 483–500. Retrieved from Business Source Premier database.
Large stock options for CEOs are a hotly debated subject. In this journal article, the authors explore whether these stock options encourage or discourage accurate financial reporting of a company’s profits. They conclude that certain other factors, when combined with large stock options, are more likely to result in fraudulent misrepresentation.
• Haskins, M. (2002). Instant insight. Strategic Finance, 84(3), 42–47. Retrieved from Business Source Premier database.
This article describes how Delta Factor reference tables may be used to turn finance ratio analysis into an accurate planning tool.
• Skogsvik, S. (2008). Financial statement information, the prediction of book return on owners- equity and market efficiency: The Swedish case. Journal of Business Finance & Accounting, 35(7/8), 795–817. Retrieved from Business Source Premier database.
This author discusses a financial model that uses financial statement information and a prediction formula to determine changes in medium-term book return on equity.
• Readings
• Course Text
Corporate Finance
• Chapter 3, “Financial Statement Analysis and Financial Models”
This chapter discusses methods for analyzing financial statements such as balance sheets, ratio analysis, and liquidity measures. These calculations are then used to develop long-term financial planning models.
• Chapter 4, “Discounted Cash Flow Valuation”
The concepts of present value, future value, and interest rate returns are introduced in this chapter along with details on multi-period situations, compounding periods, and perpetuates. Explanations are then given on how to make the calculations and then most effectively use the results.
SAMPLE ANSWER
Loan Evaluation
When a small business approaches a bank for a loan, its business plan is a very important component of what will finally influence the loan officer to approve the loan. While it may seem like the loans officer makes decision based on arbitrary standards, loan application will begin by interrogating the business plan to determine the different ratios.
Ratios are important since they give a peek into the business operation without having to visit the business in person (O’Connor, Priem, Coombs, & Gilley, 2006). The loan officer will want to understand how the business controls its expenses. This will be derived from the cost of goods sold/net sales; selling, administrative and other expenses/net sales; wages and salaries/net sales; interest expenses on borrowed funds/net sales; overhead expenses/net sales; depreciation expenses/net sales and taxes/net sales.
Of importance to the loans officer is the efficiency with which a business operates. This will be derived from the net sales/total assets, annual cost of goods sold divided by average inventory levels, net sales/net fixed assets and net sales/accounts and notes receivable (Skogsvik, 2008). Given a business will trade in a product, service or skill, it will be important to determine its marketability. This will be verified by the gross profit margin, or net sales less cost of goods sold to net sales, and the net profit margin, or net income after taxes to net sales.
The loans officer will also be interested in understanding how loan and interest will be covered by specific business aspects. This will include interest coverage (such as income before interest and taxes divided by total interest payments), coverage of interest and principal payments (such as earnings before interest and taxes divided by annual interest payments plus principal payments adjusted for the tax effect), and the coverage of all fixed payments (such as income before interest, taxes and lease payments divided by interest payments plus lease payments) (Graham, Harvey, & Rajgopal, 2006). Every business operates to be profitable.
The loans officer will develop profitability ratios like before-tax net income divided by total assets, net worth, or sales, and after-tax net income divided by total assets (or ROA), net worth (or ROE), or total sales (or ROS) or profit margin (Moyer, McGuigan, & Kretlow, 2009). Of importance to a business is the ability to meet expenses as they are incurred. The loans officer will determine the liquidity of the business through the current ratio (current assets divided by current liabilities), and the acid-test ratio (current assets less inventories divided by current liabilities).
Finally, the loans officer will seek to determine how the business is leveraged. This will be known through the use of the leverage ratio (total liabilities/total assets or net worth), the capitalization ratio (of long-term debt divided by total long-term liabilities and net worth), and the debt-to-sales ratio (of total liabilities divided by net sales).
Ratios will not tell the whole story as they only reflect the symptoms of a possible predicament as opposed to exposing the root cause and nature of the problem. The loans officer will, thus, make a more informed decision if they should investigate the reasons behind the trend exhibited by the ratios (Charantimath, 2006). After all, when a ratio changes, it could be as a result of a shift in the numerator or the denominator or both. A loans officer will also seek additional information that will capture the experience of the owner, the potential value of prospective customers and other non-balance sheet items (Haskins, 2002).
For a large company seeking a loan, a loans officer will seek the credit history of the organization. This will be given by the credit reference bureau. The company will also have to provide collateral and any options available. The choice of collateral used to secure a loan will affect the bank’s acceptable loan-to-value ratio.
References
Charantimath, P. M (2006). Entrepreneurship Development and Small Business Enterprise, Dorling Kindersley, New Delhi
Graham, J., Harvey, C., & Rajgopal, S. (2006). Value destruction and financial reporting decisions. Financial Analysts Journal, Vol. 62, No. 6, pp, 27–39.
Haskins, M. (2002). Instant insight. Strategic Finance, Vol. 84, No. 3, pp. 42–47.
Moyer, R. C., McGuigan, J & Kretlow, W (2009). Contemporary Financial Management, 11th Ed, South-Western Cengage Learning, Mason OH.
O’Connor, J., Priem, R., Coombs, J., & Gilley, K. (2006). Do CEO stock options prevent or promote fraudulent financial reporting? Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 49, No. 3, pp. 483–500.
Skogsvik, S. (2008). Financial statement information, the prediction of book return on owners- equity and market efficiency: The Swedish case. Journal of Business Finance & Accounting, Vol. 35, No. 7 and 8, pp. 795–817.
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This is the second question of four questions in the comprehensive exam toward PhD program. I have already sent my information and all four questions at once, but in case you may need it again, can be forwarded.
Four questions are pasted below, please respond to the second question and when doing so please pay attention to the informative papers that have been sent for previous question:
Question 1: Theory
Theories play a vitally important role in guiding research and organizing and making sense of research findings. In spite of the great importance of theory-building and theory testing within your field of specialization, there is no generally accepted conception of what a theory is. Because your dissertation must contribute to theory, you must have a clear understanding of the variety of conceptions of theory, types of theories, and ways of contributing to theory and be able to justify how, exactly, your study contributes to theory.
Part 1
Using Gelso (2006), Harlow (2009), Stam, H. (2000, 2010), Wacker (1999), and five additional peer-reviewed articles from your specialization, discuss scholarly views on the nature and types of theory. Compare and contrast at least three views of what constitutes a theory, including the view you will use in Part 3 of this question. Be sure to distinguish theory from related concepts, such as hypothesis, paradigm, model, and concept.
Part 2
Using Ellis & Levy (2008), Harlow, E. (2009), and five additional peer-reviewed articles, review the scholarly literature on the relationship between theory and research and the ways research (quantitative and qualitative) can contribute to theory. Discuss at least three ways research can contribute to theory.
Part 3
Pick a theory (in one of the views of what constitutes a theory that you identified in Part 1) of current interest directly related to the topic area of your dissertation. A theory is currently of interest if there are articles published on it in the past five years. Using at least 10 published, peer-reviewed research articles:
1. Explain how the theory adds or may add to our understanding of your field and/or research topic.
2. Discuss and analyze the literature on two areas of controversy or unanswered questions related to the theory.
The structure of your paper should be as follows:
Title page
Body (10-15 pages, no more or less; APA Style; use appropriate headings for organization of the paper)
References (APA Style)
Learning Outcomes:
1. Compose a theoretically sound and conceptually rich essay that demonstrates knowledge of fundamental subject areas of a student’s academic discipline and specialization.
Question 2: Practical Application
Your dissertation research must contribute to theory. Your research and the theory to which it contributes may or may not have a practical benefit or application. There is no doubt, however, that there is a theory in your dissertation topic area that does have a practical application.
Part 1
Referencing at least five peer-reviewed journal articles or scholarly books, discuss views on the relationship between theory and application or practice. How can a theory guide or inform practice? What are the issues involved in translating theory into practice? Be sure to keep in mind the various conceptions of theory you discussed in Question 1.
Part 2
Referencing at least five peer-reviewed journal articles, fully describe a theory of current interest in your topic area. A theory is currently of interest if there are articles published on it in the past five years. This theory may or may not be the same as the one you examined in Question 1, Part 3. Describe a current view of the theory, not the founder’s view or a classic view. Your answer should be no more than three pages long.
Part 3
Identify at least five scholarly articles (published in the last 5 years) that address how the theory you discussed in Part 2 has actually been applied. (Draw on your response to Part 1 in order to define what you mean by an application of a theory to an actual problem or situation.) Critically evaluate the appropriateness of the uses to which the theory has been applied. Consider, for example: Are the applications premised upon an accurate understanding of the theory and its scope? Do the applications “go beyond” what the theory claims? Is the reasoning linking application and theory sound?
The structure of your paper should be as follows:
Title page
Body (10-15 pages, no more or less; APA Style; use appropriate headings for organization of the paper)
References (APA Style)
Learning Outcomes:
2. Critique existing research and design a methodologically sound approach to research in the student’s academic specialization(s).
Question 3: Research
The ability to read, understand, critique, and integrate research studies and to design a study to address a gap in the research literature is a vital tool for a doctoral student. As you write your dissertation, you may be reading hundreds of studies, many of which you will evaluate as part of a coherent literature review.
Select five empirical articles from peer-reviewed journals that:
• you consider critical to your understanding of your area of dissertation research
• all address a particular phenomenon and attempt to contribute to theory about it
Part 1
1. Describe each study, including:
• the research problem, questions, or hypotheses
• the research purpose
• type of design and elements of the design (e.g., sample, data analysis, operationalization of constructs)
• threats to validity and if and how they were addressed
• the findings and their implications
2. Critically evaluate each study: Does the author make a compelling case for the meaning and significance of the findings?
Part 2
Write a literature review that explains what is known and not known about the phenomenon based on a critical evaluation of the five studies.
Part 3
Develop a research question that addresses one of the unknowns you identified in Part 2 and sketch a quantitative or qualitative study that can answer the question about what is unknown and contribute to theory (in some sense of theory you discuss in Question 1).
Address:
• the research purpose
• type of design and elements of the design (e.g., sample, the type of data you need to collect and how you will collect it, data analysis)
• the strengths and weaknesses of your envisioned design and methods
• quantitative: threats to validity and how your design will address them
• quantitative: the constructs you will measure and what you will do in order to determine how to operationalize them (you need not identify specific measures)
• qualitative: your means of ensuring the quality of your findings
• justification for why your chosen design and methods are more appropriate for your research question than alternatives you have considered
• your methods of data analysis
• how the data you collect will enable you to answer your research question and contribute to theory
Draw on the additional resources for this course for guidance in understanding the concepts (e.g., internal validity, threats to validity, and operationalization) needed to address this question.
The structure of your paper should be as follows:
Title page
Body (10-15 pages, no more or less; APA Style; use appropriate headings for organization of the paper)
References (APA Style)
Learning Outcomes:
3. Apply relevant theory and research from the student’s specialization coursework to real life situations where he or she solves specific problems and discusses implications.
Question 4: Ethics
As you know, scientific research must be conducted in accordance with ethical principles. The ethical principles of research are defined in:
The National Academy Of Sciences, National Academy Of Engineering, and Institute Of Medicine Of The National Academies have a more detailed and comprehensive set of ethical guidelines for scientific research:
Committee on Science, Engineering, and Public Policy (U.S.), National Academy of Sciences (U.S.), National Academy of Engineering., & Institute of Medicine (U.S.). (2009) On being a scientist: A guide to responsible conduct in research, (3rd ed.). Washington, D.C: National Academies Press. http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=12192
Write a paper in which you discuss how you will ensure that all aspects of your doctoral research, from literature review to conducting research, to writing the dissertation manuscript will be done with care and integrity and will meet the ethical standards of scientific research. Reference the two publications above and at least five additional peer-reviewed articles.
You must justify all the steps you will take to ensure the ethical integrity of your dissertation project and not simply describe standard practice. You must show that you have your own clear set of ethical principles and that you know how to apply them to your work. You must do more than just paraphrase ethical guidelines. You must explain specifically how you will apply published ethical guidelines and concepts to what you will do in your research (as you envision it at this point).
Be sure to address the following:
• Plagiarism
• Risk assessment
• Informed consent
• Privacy and confidentiality
• Data handling and reporting
• Mistakes and negligence
• Working with a Mentor
• Northcentral University requirements for IRB approval
Conclude your paper with your thoughts on the following statement:
Ethical scientific researchers have a commitment to all who are touched by their research—participants who share their lives and time, mentors and advisors, reviewers, future readers, and supporters and cheerleaders on the journey—to take care and do their work well.
The structure of your paper should be as follows:
Title page
Body (10-15 pages, no more or less; APA Style; use appropriate headings for organization of the paper)
References (APA Style)
Learning Outcomes:
4. Integrate knowledge of ethical practices with principles of professional practice as it applies to specific scenarios within the student’s academic discipline and specialization.
SAMPLE ANSWER
Comprehensive Exam: Question 2
Part 1
Relationship between Theory and Practice
The association existing between practice and theory happens to be an extensive discussion in various scholarly literatures that cover diverse disciplines or fields of study. According to Aertsen, Jaspaert and Van-Gorp (2013), the systematic nature of any theory is often focused on the provision of an illustrative or explanatory leverage on a given issue by offering descriptions of innovative characteristics of events/phenomena. A theory can also provide predictive utility. In relation to this, there exist three influential notions/views/opinions that hold theories to be (1) instruments of performing things in the world; (2) reducible to observables; and (3) statements concerning existing things or events. All academic studies are dependent on theory. A theory offers a model for evaluation, enhances the establishment of academic discipline/filed in an efficient manner, and is required in the applicability aspect of real world issues. As such, theory acts as a driving force towards the accomplishment of practice and research. Apart from its application is social disciplines, theory possess a revealing and practical connections to medicine, physics, biology, chemistry and other life disciplines as it contributes to significant practice, predictions and discovery explanations.
Brownlie, Hewer and Ferguson (2009) argue that the most common/famous assertion or statement is that nothing happens to be as practical as a good theory. A good theory serves as a baseline in which appropriate/best practices can be established. Despite a good theory being significant in the realization of an informed practice, and continual maturity and improvement of a discipline, it also possesses the ability to improve the practice and comprehension/understanding of practitioners. On the contrary, many scholars have continued to debate and discuss various controversies that are associated with the association between practice and theory in relation to the perceived gap between these two aspects. These scholars discuss such controversies in two dimensions, which are the viewpoint of practitioner and academic viewpoint. Chan, Chan & Liu (2012), claim that practitioners are often asking the question concerning the necessity of theories and when they can be used by such practitioners. In relation to this, the academic happens to be guided and propelled towards thorough and increasingly relevant/applicable theoretical contributions/donations that may contradict the practitioners’ demands. According to Chan, Chan & Liu (2012), a theory is the reality, and its pursuit by academicians is based/grounded on its revelatory and explanatory potential, which has the ability to invoke themes within extant literature that can result into overall shift in paradigm. According to Hatlevik & Katrine (2012), theories have claimed that in applied disciplines of leadership and management, theoretical propositions/proposals should be inspired or drive by the appropriateness of the practice for the advancement and progression of knowledge within a continuous cycle.
A research-driven theory possess a direct relevance to practice, and is beneficial to the discipline/field. However, what comprises a theoretical donation/contribution within the field or discipline of study can act as another source of contention among academicians. In relation to this, a theory-practice association is considered a communication relationship. Sammut (2014) argues that engaged scholarship, which is considered a remedy to perceived or real gap, requires a more mode of query or investigation to convert information offered by practitioners and scholars into actions with the aim of addressing issues involved in a given discipline. Even within, methodological, theoretical and contextual situations, the use of a range of methods in testing theories informs practice, and yields substantive and valued knowledge. In relation to this, it can be argued that a theory yields research, and research produces and refines theory.
Ragozzino & Moschieri (2014) argue that there is often a tension between practice and theory. These two distinct realms are connected to each other via a process of application and abstraction. To describe this relationship/association by way of theory, it can be argues that practice reterritorializes theory and theory deterritorializes practice. As a result, this interaction can lead to a practice that is becoming a theory, and a theory that is becoming a practice. Furthermore, to describe this association by way of theory, it can be noted that practice happens to be an applied theory and theory happens to be an abstracted practice. Sammut (2014) claims that there exists an age-old issues/problem with the association/relationship between practice and theory in that individuals who are specialized in practice always argue that those specialized in theory are separated or detached from the real/actual world, which is the world of practice. On the other side, individuals who are specialized in theory always claim that those individuals who have specialization in practice lack fundamental understanding or comprehension of what they do. As such, the conflict between pro-theory and pro-practice individuals often leads to contradictory and incongruous practices.
Suddaby (2014) argues that, there exist a third group of persons that embody or embrace the becoming, the application/abstraction process. Individuals that belong to this category act as conduit in that they bridge the two worlds (pro-practice and pro-theory worlds). In relation to this, there exists a given art to explaining or describing the core of theory using words of an individual who practices. On other hand, there exist a given art to joining the essences associated with practices and submitting it to individuals who theorize. As such, building or establishing this bridge serves an act of creation, building or opening of space.
Suddaby (2014) claims that the relationship between practice and theory can be termed as dichotomous. In relation to this, the view of practice and theory as independent/dichotomous association between the mind and spirit, and the phenomenal world traces its roots in the ancient universe/world. For Plato the universe of appearances refers to the phenomenal world, which is understood or comprehended by belief and imagination. According to Ragozzino & Moschieri (2014), such a world needs to be separated or distinguished from the higher, abstract and intelligible world that is grasped via thinking, intelligence and knowledge. In relation to this, it can be argued that the Platonic views led to the ascendency of deliberate and careful observation of the phenomenal universe over the philosophical reflection. Moreover, Platonic views contributed to the establishment of a platform on which enlightenment, and the scientific, industrial and information revolutions were accomplished or attained. As a result, science, empiricism and technology displaced philosophy as primary methods through which the phenomenal universe and nature of human cognition, mind, being and feeling could be comprehended.
Issues Involved in the Translation of Theory into Practice
The association existing between practice and theory happens to be crucial in that practice informs theory and theory informs practice. However, there exist several issues, assumptions and controversies surrounding the translation conversion of a theory into practice. In the real sense, the gap between practice and theory is considered a knowledge transfer issue/problem. The initiation of information and dialogue between practitioners and scholars is a suitable method of addressing the perceived misassumption and divide between practice and theory. According to Chan, Chan & Liu (2012), engaged scholarship promoted the appropriateness of research for practice apart from its contribution to the progression of knowledge in a given domain. As such, this argument can be employed in addressing the issue of knowledge production. In addition, to claim that the knowledge of practice and theory are separate does not amount to the statement that these two elements act as substitutes to each other. However, it can be argued that practice and theory complement each other. Taking into consideration the association between application/practice and theory, a framework of four stages that explains the association between the two elements has been developed. The first phase of this model focuses on the conceptual establishment stage, which offers an initial comprehension and description of the dynamics and nature of a problem, phenomenon or issues that happens to be the focus of a theory. The second stage involves the operationalization process, which takes into consideration the explicit link between the conceptual establishment stage and practice. The thirds stage/phase involves the disconfirmation or confirmation aspects. This phase takes into consideration issues such as implementation, planning, evaluation and design of appropriate studies and research agendas to disconfirm and confirm theoretical framework, which is central to theories. Consequently, the last stage involves the application process, which tests or evaluates the theory via learning and experience from the real world context. In relation to this, practice is evaluated with the aim of certifying the relevance and significance of theory. This undertaking is executed with the aim of improving problem solving and action. According to Aertsen, Jaspaert & Van-Gorp (2013), the continuous or constant refinement and improvement is founded on the learning acquired from the application stage as theory can never be compete.
Part 2
Theory of Current Interest in My Topic Area
My topic area focuses on the investigation of the effect that the prevailing construction worker wage has on the expenses or costs of constructions of affordable housing for various seniors within California in relation to the employees’ wage rate of market construction. Taking that my topic area focuses on one of the significant role of the HRM, which is the determination of salaries and benefits of employees, the most probable theory of interest within my topic area is neo-institutional theory (Csaba, 2009). Neo-institutional theory exists among the principle theoretical perspectives that are employed in understanding organizational behaviors as studied or investigated in other organizations or as influenced by other organizations, and wider social pressures or forces, especially broader cultural beliefs and rules. Early or initial scholars/academicians focused on the theorization and documentation of the manner in which the construction of wider cultural rules and beliefs comprised actors, and enhanced organizational isomorphism, which involves the growing or increasing similarities of firms within a given field or discipline. Consequently, the scope o coverage of the theory was extended to account for the change and transformation of institutions or organizations alongside the heterogeneity of practices and actors in fields (Goldmann, 2011). Taking this aspect into consideration my topic area aims at ensuring that the current practices of the HR, which seem to embrace low construction worker wage, within the construction industry. In relation to this, my study focuses on ensuring that there is a transformation in the prevailing construction worker wage within construction industry. As such, neo-institutionalism happens to be relevant to my topic area. Being that neo-institutionalism focuses on the change and transformation of institutions several strands of views and theorizations have emerged concerning this theory. Most of these theorizations are related to the perspective of institutional logics. While neo-institutionalism is associated closely with informed debates and ideas in management and sociology, this theory draws or borrows most from social and cognitive psychology, political science, anthropology and economics.
Current Views of the Neo-Institutional Theory
Taking into consideration the evolution that that the neo-institutionalism theory has undergone, different scholars have established different views concerning the three traditionally/conventionally recognized forms of neo-institutionalism. These forms include the sociological, historical and rational choice. Besides, there has been a fourth development of a fourth view of neo-institutionalism, which is the discursive neo-institutionalism. According to Gruchy (2011), the three form of neo-institutionalism (sociological, historical and rational choice) share one thing in common in that they are effective in explaining the aspect of continuity, as opposed to change. Hasselbadh & Kallinikos (2009) argue that in all the three forms of neo-institutionalism, which are employed in analyzing organizations, the primary role of institutions is serving as constraints. In relation to this, political RI (rational choice institutionalism) focuses on rational actors/agents who pursue their interests by following a logic or judgment of calculation in political institutions or organizations, which are considered systems/structures of incentives. On the other hand, HI (historical institutionalism focuses on the aspect of detailing improvement of political institutions, which are explained as regularized designs/patterns and routinized practices that are subject to a judgment of path-independence. SI (social institutionalism) focuses on social actors who act in accordance to a sense/judgment of appropriateness in political organizations or institutions, which are described as culturally-framed and socially-constituted norms and rules.
Scholars have also made advancements in including views of institutionalism that transcend the political arena. As a result, a new view of neo-institutionalism, which is the discursive neo-institutionalism, has been developed. According to Junker (2011), discursive institutionalism is a common instrument among academicians/scholars who employ discourse and ideas in explaining political change or transformation within organizational/institutional context. Hatlevik & Katrine (2012) argue that scholars who take discourse and ideas seriously should be considered discursive institutionalists. Discursive institutionalism has been associated with many names such as ideational institutionalism, constructivism institutionalism and ideational turn among others. According to Ragozzino & Moschieri (2014), discursive institutionalism happens to be an umbrella concept/idea for the vast series or range of functions within political science, which take account or records of the substantive content of views and interactive processes by which process or procedures are exchanged and conveyed via discourse. In relation to the substantive dimension/aspects of discourse and ideas, discursive institutionalism (DI) academicians/scholars consider views about what ought to be and what is at various levels of generality. Goldmann (2011) argue that the ideas of what ought to be and what is should be focused on moving from policy views. Other scholars have also focused on the aspect of paradigms or programmatic ideas. Consequently, other scholars have also considered aspects of what ought to be and what is as deeper philosophical views. According to Hatlevik & Katrine (2012), various types of ideas/views with the inclusion of cognitive views that are justified in term of necessity and interest-based logics should also be considered in the determination of aspect of what ought to be and what is. Taking these arguments into consideration, it is clear that various scholars have conflicting views concerning the theory of neo-institutionalism.
Part 3
Appropriateness of the Uses to Which Neo-Institutionalism has been applied
The systematic nature, which is associated with a theory, focuses on the provision explanatory or descriptive leverage on an issue. As such, theory contributes significantly to explaining innovative characteristics of an event. Besides, the systematic nature of a theory allows it offer predictive utility. According to Csaba (2009) and Goldmann (2011), theory that is inspires or motivated by research has a direct relevance to beneficial discipline and practice. In relation to this, the neo-institutional theory can be applied to various disciplines or fields. This theory can be applied in five different areas of practice. Gruchy (2011) employed neo-institutional model in examining human resource management practices (HRM practices). This application was done in relation to multinational corporations that operate in nations such as Russia, Finland and U.S. The application of the neo-institutional theory in addressing issues involved in the HRM practice is often common in organizations that associated with the pressure and social influence to adopt best practices. In relation to this, it can be argued that employee development act as a significant source of competitive advantages to firms, which makes it significant for companies/firms to adopt appropriate HRM practices. Taking this aspect into consideration, the neo-institutional isomorphic processes offer three separate or distinctive definitions/explanations (1) normative as a result of the dissemination of professional patterns of organizations (2) coercive as a result of the government policies/regulations and (3) mimetic where firms imitate or copy other firms. It is vital to note that neo-institutional theory does not provide a lens for generic/broad organizational construct, but offers a lens for addressing institutional pressure. In relation to this, there are two controversial issues that are associated with the study conducted by Gruchy (2011). These issues are explicit despite the researcher identifying local institutional forces from the subsidiaries of the multinational corporation investigated in the study. The first controversial issue is that HRM practices are not championed or defined by any professional agency to warrant the presence of normative pressure. The second controversial issue is that the adoption of best HRM practices is not under appropriate regulation or is not regulatory. As such, it can be argued that neo-institutional theory helps in the comprehension of the determining factors of HRM practices. However, in the study executed by Hasselbadh & Kallinikos (2009), the theoretical constructs/buildups of the neo-institutional theory do not justify the event/phenomenon investigated in the research. In relation to this, the differentiation of the normative, coercive and mimetic influences presents problems.
Hatlevik & Katrine (2012) borrowed from neo-institutional theory to offer an in-depth understanding of the agents or factors that shaped how the policies of the human resource can be adjusted in relation to the externally imposed UK policy against age discrimination. In relation to this, the researcher’s theoretical lens addressed two factors. The first approach involved the examination of the UK’s policy on HR regulations, while the second approach focused on the investigation of other forces, which impact on the introduction of policies, apart from the legislation.
Evaluation of the Appropriateness of Uses to which Neo-Institutionalism Has been Applied, and the Researchers’ Accurate Comprehension of the theory and its Scope
Researchers have succeeded in demonstrating an appropriate use or application of the neo-institutionalism theory. As a theoretical perspective, the neo-institutional theory employs or uses three isomorphic pressures in analyzing forces to which the HRM is subjected. These pressures include mimetic, normative and coercive forces. Taking into consideration the perspectives of researchers, the convergence of these three forces can be described or explained within the HR (Csaba, 2009). The first point of convergence is the coercive force introduced by the legislation of UK against age discrimination. The second point of convergence is the mimetic force introduced by agencies such as the Age Positive and Employers’ Forum on Age. The third point of convergence is the normative force from professional networks like the Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development. As such, the study Goldmann (2011) focused on the investigation of how coercive pressure or force from new policy introduced by the UK government was viewed within firms in the UK. This goal was accomplished by focusing on the natural attitude associated with individuals with stereotypes and diverse agendas. Despite the neo-institutional theory being restricted to the study of the effects of isomorphic forces within firms, Goldmann (2011) identified that organizational aspects such as preexisting values, complexities, diverse stakeholders, interest groups and sectorial distinction complicate and delay the execution of legislations associated with HRM practices.
Despite the internal elements/factors associated with firms, the neo-institutional theory helps in the examination of events/phenomena within the theory’s proposition, with proof from the three isomorphic pressures. On the other hand, there exists a gap or need for further research on what comprises the definition of pre-existing circumstances and other internal values of HR within the context of the neo-institutional theory. Taking into consideration the views or perspective of the neo-institutional theory, Gruchy (2011) established a case study that can be employed in understanding how external and internal organizational factors determine the organizational actions. Gruchy (2011) focused on the identification of the aspect of regulation in terms of Sarbanes-Oxley Act, which comprises a force that encouraged/motivated the top managers to initiate or implement a change within ABC international. Interactions and communications with professional publications and associations comprised the normative influence. Although Gruchy (2011), could not discover the existence or presence of mimetic isomorphism, the assessment of the generators of pressures within the context of neo-institutional theory offered to separate effects. The first effect was associated with the coercive pressure of Sarbanes-Oxley that motivated top managers to mandate/command top-down information security that is related to changes across the whole/entire company. The second effect is associated with the provision of significant source of views concerning the security practices, policies and technologies that can be adopted by managers.
Whether the Researchers go beyond the Scope of Neo-Institutionalism, and Whether the Reason/Judgment Linking Theory to Application is Sound.
Despite the fact that neo-institutional theory does not describe how companies are supposed to handle conflicting demands, Gruchy (2011) employed the buildup dual influence from internal management and internal force in positing such conflicting interactions/association. Nevertheless, despite such as view being founded on assumption, it offers future research opportunities. Gruchy (2011) employed the neo-institutional theory in conducting a research/study with the aim of investigating the functions of institutional mechanisms, and moderating functions of social network systems and cultural values in dispersion/diffusion of global/universal work value within the realm/context of multinational firms or multinational organizations. Furthermore, the research proposed that the normative and regulative institutional processes have the likelihood of diffusing global work values in more efficient manner among the members or subsidiaries of the MNOs (Multinational Organizations). However, the coercive and regulative institutional processes are enacted rules and laws in specific environments that enhance certain forms of behavior or restrict others. In relation to this, the support of the regulatory or coercive force as experienced in Junker, (2011) study. According to Hatlevik & Katrine (2012), multinational organizations should incorporate the shared universal work values for them to create a working environment, where employees have the ability to coordinate their activities and communicate their views with the aim of reaching similar goals. However, approach is not applicable to or practicable with multinational organizations’ subsidiaries that are located in various cultures. Csaba (2009) offers a different perception about the international research/study involving the dispersion/diffusion of normative or coercive institutional pressures or forces with the globalized context due to jurisdictional preferences. In like manner, Goldmann (2011) hypothesized that leadership traits/characteristics, openness to cultural diversity, performance orientation and customer orientation are work values that can result into the transpiration/leaking of the global work environments. Such arguments cannot be generalized within the realm, of neo-institutional theory or the practicability of isomorphism as a result of the differences existing in institutional context nations. As such, such claims are considered an attempt to move beyond the theoretical proposal/proposition. Besides, the researchers’ reasoning/judgments have contributed significantly to the linking of linking of theory and application in a sound manner.
References
Aertsen, T; Jaspaert, K., & Van-Gorp, B. (2013). From Theory to Practice: A Crisis Simulation Exercise. Business Communication Quarterly, 76(3) 322-338.
Brownlie, D; Hewer, P., & Ferguson, P. (2009). Theory into Practice: Mediations on Culture of Accountability and Interdisciplinarity in Marketing Research. Journal of Marketing Management, 23(5/6) 395-409
Chan, A; Chan, K., & Liu, K. (2012). A Triadic Interplay between Academics, Practitioners and Students in the Nursing Theory and Practice Dialect. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 68(5) 1038-1049.
Csaba, L. (2009). From Sovietology to Neo-Institutionalism. Post-Communist Economies, 21(4) 383-398
Goldmann, K. (2011). Appropriateness and Consequences: The Logic of Neo-Institutionalism. Governance, 18(1) 35-52.
Gruchy, G. (2011). Neo-Institutionalism, Neo-Marxism and Neo-Keynesianism: An Evaluation. Journal of Economic Issues, 18(2) 547
Hasselbadh, H., & Kallinikos, J. (2009). The Project of Rationalization: A Critique and Reappraisal of Neo-Institutionalism in Organization Studies. Organization Studies, 21(4) 697
Hatlevik, I., & Katrine, R. (2012). The Theory-Practice Relationship: Reflective Skills and Theoretical Knowledge as Key Factors in Bridging the gap Between Theory and Practice in Initial Nursing Education. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 68(4) 868-877
Junker, J. (2011). Theoretical Foundations of Neo-Institutionalism. Journal of Economics & Sociology, 27(2) 197-213.
Sammut, K. (2014). Transformative eLearning Theory and Coaching: Application in Practice. International Journal of Evidence Based Coaching & Mentoring, 1(8) 39-53.
Suddaby, R. (2014). Editor’s Comments Why Theory? Academy of Management Review, 39(4) 407-411.
Ragozzino, R., & Moschieri, C. (2014). When Theory Doesn’t Meet Practice: Do Firms Really Stage their Investments? Academy
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Evaluate how “Employer and employee rights” impacts your role as an advanced practice nurse. What are the legal implications related to your practice. Analyze how understanding of the chosen topic will impact your future practice.
SAMPLE ANSWER
Corporate Liability
In any health facility, employee and employers have their rights. Violation of these rights may attract some consequences in terms of dismissal, fines and penalty among other disciplinary measure. These rights impacts on an advanced practice nurse in many ways.
Employee and employer rights provide a guideline on how advanced nurse practitioners should carry out themselves in healthcare setting. The rights enable APN to agitate and negotiate for fair treatment from their employers (Morrell, 2010). For instance, the rights grants APN an opportunity to demand for better working conditions, better selection and recruitment practices based on equality and fairness, good salary, allowances and a right to be heard before any disciplinary measures are provided such as dismissal (Rounds, Zych & Mallary, 2013). Furthermore, these rights allow the APN to demand for respect from their employers when providing his service to patients. Therefore, it is apparent that, these employee and employer rights are very critical in creating conducive relationship between the APN and their employers. The rights define the limitations and the issues that the two need to engage in hence enhancing delivery of quality healthcare to patients.
My practice as APN requires that I respect the legal system. Some of the legal implications that relates to my practice include issues concerning privacy, negligence and failing to meet the expectation professional qualification to render care (Lubbe & Roets, 2014). For instance, I will be held liable if I fail to take good care of the patient by failing to follow standard of care, failure to document, failure to communicate, failure to use equipment in a responsible way, failure to act as patient advocate and failure to assess and monitor patients intentionally (Badzek, Henaghan, Turner & Monsen, 2013). This may amount to negligence an offence punishable by law. Another example is to provide care to patients without any professional qualification and accreditation that permits me to do so. Other legal implications include engaging in fraud and related malpractices such as corruption.
In conclusion, as APN it is important to remain professional and adhere to ethical standards and law to avoid legal implications. Both parties to ensure positive working relationships in rendering quality care should respect employee and employer rights.
School of Education Quantitative Research Plan Paper
Order Instructions:
See the attached file for the comments.
SAMPLE ANSWER
STATEMENT OF ORIGINAL WORK
I understand that Capella University’s Academic Honesty Policy (3.01.01) holds learners accountable for the integrity of work they submit, which includes, but is not limited to, discussion postings, assignments, comprehensive exams, and the dissertation. Learners are expected to understand the Policy and know that it is their responsibility to learn about instructor and general academic expectations with regard to proper citation of sources in written work as specified in the APA Publication Manual, 6th Ed. Serious sanctions can result from violations of any type of the Academic Honesty Policy including dismissal from the university.
I attest that this document represents my own work. Where I have used the ideas of others, I have paraphrased and given credit according to the guidelines of the APA Publication Manual, 6th Ed. Where I have used the words of others, (i.e. direct quotes), I have followed the guidelines for using direct quotes prescribed by the APA Publication Manual, 6th Ed.
I have read, understood, and abided by Capella University’s Academic Honesty Policy (3.01.01). I further understand that Capella University takes plagiarism seriously; regardless of intention, the result is the same.
This Research Plan (RP), version 2.O, must be completed and reviewed before taking steps to collect data and write the dissertation. In the School of Education, the satisfactory completion of this plan satisfies dissertation milestone 5, indicating that the RP proposal has passed the “scientific merit review,” part of the IRB process.
Specialization Chair’s Approval after Section 1
When you have completed Section 1 along with initial references in section 5 send the RP to your mentor for review. When your mentor considers it is ready, he or she sends it to Dissertation Support to forward to your specialization Chair. The Chair approves the topic as appropriate within your specialization. You then go on to complete the remaining sections of the RP.
Do’s and Don’ts
Do use the correct form! This RP is for QUANTITATIVE designs.
Do prepare your answers in a separate Word document. Editing and revising will be easier.
Set font formatting to Times New Roman, 11 point, regular style font Do set paragraph indentation (“Format” menu) for no indentation, no spacing.
Do copy/paste items into the right-hand fields when they are ready.
Don’t delete the descriptions in the left column!
Don’t lock the form. That will stop you from editing and revising within the form.
Do complete the “Learner Information” (A.) of the first table and Section 1 first.
Don’t skip items or sections. If an item does not apply to your study, type “NA” in its field.
Do read the item descriptions and their respective Instructions Items request very specific information. Be sure you understand what is asked. (Good practice for IRB!)
Do use primary sources to the greatest extent possible as references. Textbooks are not acceptable as the only references supporting methodological and design choices.
Do submit a revised RP if, after approval, you change your design elements. It may not need a second review, but should be on file before your IRB application is submitted.
Scientific Merit
The following criteria will be used to establish scientific merit. The purpose of the review will be to evaluate if the study:
Advances the scientific knowledge base.
Makes a contribution to research theory.
Demonstrates understanding of theories and approaches related to the selected research methodology.
GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS
Complete the following steps to request research plan approval for your dissertation:
Topic Approval
Develop topic and methodological approach:
Talk with your mentor about your ideas for your dissertation topic and a possible methodological approach.
Collaborate with your mentor to refine your topic into a specific educational research project that will add to the existing literature on your topic.
Complete Section 1 of the RP
Complete Section 1 addressing the topic and basic methodology and e-mail the form to your mentor for approval. Follow the instructions carefully.
Collaborate with your mentor until you have mentor approval for the topic. After you have received mentor approval for Section 1, your mentor will submit these sections to your specialization chair for topic approval via dissertation@capella.edu.
The specialization chair will notify you and your mentor of their approval and will send a copy of the approval to dissertation@capella.edu.
Milestones 3 and 4
Complete Remaining RP
After your specialization chair approves the topic and basic methodology, continue to collaborate with your mentor to plan the details of your methodological approach.
Once you and your mentor have agreed on clear plans for the details of the methodology, complete the remainders of the RP form and submit the completed RP form to your mentor for approval.
Expect that you will go through several revisions. Collaborate with your mentor until you have their approval of your RP plan.
After you have a polished version, you and your mentor should both review the Research Plan criteria for each section, to ensure you have provided the requisite information to demonstrate you have met each of the scientific merit criteria.
After your mentor has approved your RP (Milestone 3), s/he will forward your RP to your Committee for their approval (Milestone 4).
Mentor and committee approval does not guarantee research plan approval. Each review is independent and serves to ensure your research plan demonstrates research competency.
Milestone 5
After you have obtained mentor (Milestone 3) AND committee (Milestone 4) approvals of the completed RP form, your mentor will submit the completed RP via dissertation@capella.edu to have your form reviewed for Scientific Merit.
(a). RP form in review: The scientific merit reviewer will review each item to determine whether you have met each of the criteria. You must meet all the criteria to obtain reviewer approval. The reviewer will designate your RP as one of the following:
Approved
Deferred for minor or major revisions
Not approved
Not ready for review
Other
(b). If the RP has been deferred:
The SMR reviewer will provide feedback on any criteria that you have not met.
You are required to make the necessary revisions and obtain approval for the revisions from your mentor.
Once you have mentor approval for your revisions, your mentor will submit your RP for a second review.
You will be notified if your RP has been approved, deferred for major or minor revisions, or not approved.
Up to three attempts to obtain research plan approval are allowed. Researchers, mentors, and reviewers should make every possible attempt to resolve issues before the RP is failed for the third time. If a researcher does not pass the scientific merit review on the third attempt, then the case will be referred to the research specialists in the School of Education for review, evaluation, and intervention.
While you await approval of your RP, you should be working to complete your IRB application and supporting documents.
Once you have gained Research Plan approval (Milestone 5), you are ready to submit your IRB application and supporting documents for review by the IRB team.
Milestone 6
Submit the Approved RP to the IRB:
Once you obtain research plan approval, write your IRB application and accompanying materials.
Consult the Research at Capella area within iGuide for IRB forms and detailed process directions.
You are required to obtain research plan approval before you may receive IRB approval. Obtaining research plan approval does not guarantee that IRB approval will follow.
Milestone 7
Complete the Research Plan Conference call:
Once you have gained approval by the IRB, you are ready to schedule your Proposed Research Conference Call. You may not proceed to data collection until you have completed this set.
Work with your mentor and committee to set a date for the conference call.
Upon successful completion of the Proposed Research Conference Call, your mentor will complete the corresponding Milestone Report and you are ready for data collection.
Researchers, please insert your answers directly into the expandable boxes that have been provided!
Section 1. Research Problem, Significance, Question(s), Title: Quantitative
1.1 Proposed Dissertation Title
(Usually a statement based on the research question–short and to the point.)
PREDICTOR OF STUDENT PERFORMANCE FOR GRADE 6 IN READING: A CORRELATION BETWEEN STAR READING SCORES AND PERFORMANCE ON THE ALABAMA READING AND MATH TEST (ARMT)
1.2 Research Topic
Describe the specific topic to be studied in a paragraph. (Be certain that the research question relates to the topic.)
In order to identify and meet the learning needs of students with academic deficiencies in both reading and mathematics, The No Child Left Behind Act of 2002 [NCLB, 2002] (Sanger, 2012, p 43) mandates that each school district implements the Response to Instruction (RtI) model. Mahoney and Hall (2010) reported that RtI is a service-based model designed to meet the learning needs of students prior to diagnosis and placement in special education settings (p.1). The model also requires that schools have to make Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP) based on standards outlined in NCLB. Local Education Agencies (LEAs) are granted Title I funds to assist with ensuring that schools teach state standards to mastery (US Department of Education, 2003). In the event that a schools fails to meet AYP for three consecutive years, then the management of the schools becomes liable to penalties such as a compulsory restructuring of the school or an imminent takeover by the state.
In states such as Alabama, districts have utilized Renaissance Incorporated’s Star Reading and Math Computer Adaptive Tests (CAT) to conduct universal screenings, in order to diagnose interventions, and to monitor students’ progress (Alabama State Department of Education, 2013). Currently, the area of Computer Adaptive Assessment has elicited few quantitative studies nonetheless, summative tests conducted by the state identified that the assessments have led to an increase in reading achievement. Based on these findings, this study is designed to determine whether or not there is a statistical relationship between the STAR reading assessments and student performance on the ARMT reading assessment. The population for the study will consist of approximately 500 sixth grade students from three middle schools selected from the state of Alabama. The sub groups will be disaggregated according to their level of performance on both the CAT and on the STAR assessments. All sixth graders are assessed using the STAR assessment as an initial screening to determine the degree of intervention necessary for each student based on his or her scaled score.
1.3 Research Problem
Write a brief statement that fully describes the problem being addressed. Present this in one sentence or no more than one clear concise paragraph.
Statement of the Problem
One challenge for educators has been the ability to locate an assessment system that assists with determining which students are on track to meet performance standards. School districts must find systemic and systematic ways to identify students who struggle with certain concepts and be able to provide individualized, differentiated intervention and instruction appropriate for the students’ needs. It is important that the tool being used is an accurate predictor of the scores on the end of year state summative assessment.
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1.4 Research Purpose
Write a brief statement that fully describes the intent of the study or the reason for conducting the study. Present this in one sentence or no more than one clear concise paragraph.
The purpose of this research study is to determine the statistical relationship between STAR reading assessments and the performance of using the ARMT reading assessment.
1.5 Research Question(s)
List the primary research question and any sub questions addressed by the proposed study. The primary research question should flow logically from the problem statement and purpose statement and be very similar in wording although phrased as a question. Include alternative and null hypotheses as appropriate.
Research Question/Hypothesis
RQ1 – What is the extent of the relationship between student performance on STAR reading benchmark tests and performance on the ARMT?
RH1 – Student performance on the STAR is correlated to their performance on the ARMT.
H01 – Student performance on the STAR is not correlated to their performance on the ARMT.
RQ2 – Is there a statistically significant correlation between sixth grade students’ performance on STAR and on ARMT?
RH2- There is a statistically significant correlation between sixth grade students’ performance on STAR and on ARMT.
H02 – There is not a statistically significant correlation difference between sixth grade students’ performance
RQ3 – Is the STAR formative assessment a predictor of student performance on the standardized ARMT?
RH3 – STAR formative assessment is a predictor of student performance on the standardized ARMT.
H01 – STAR formative assessment is not a predictor of student performance on the standardized ARMT.
Variables:
Two variables will be identified for this study:
Dependent variable – students’ scaled scores on the Alabama Reading and Math Test in March, 2012
Independent variable – Predictor variables – the students’ scores on the STAR during first semester.
1.6 Literature Review Section
Provide a brief overview of the conceptual framework upon which your study is based. Identify the seminal research and theories that inform your study. Discuss the topics and themes that you will use to organize your literature review. Attach the most current list of references with the Research Plan.
Theoretical Framework
For the purposes of this study, the conceptual framework is founded on constructivists’ theories that include hypothesis by authors and researchers such as Piaget (1952), Bruner (1966), Dewey (1933), and Vygotsky (1962). Piaget (1952) is known for his learning stages including sensory motor, pre operational concrete operational, and formal operational. Bruner (1966) is remembered for the five E’s: engage, explore, explain, elaborate and evaluate. Bruner’s (1966) theories contend that students construct their own learning. Dewey (1933) theorized that children should engage in real life applications and collaboration with other students. He contended that knowledge is constructed from previous experiences. Finally, Vygotsky (1962) focused on scaffolding as a teaching strategy which is utilized in conjunction with the students’ zone of proximal development which is the “distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development under adult guidance, or in collaboration with more capable peers” (Anderson, 1993, p. 134). This theoretical framework is relevant to the current study because Renaissance Star Reading identifies students’ Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) that is defined as the range of reading that a student can engage in without reaching a level of frustration. The ZPD uses a grade equivalent to estimate the zone of proximal development, which is based on the Vygotsky’s (1962) learning theory.
On January 8, 2002, President George W. Bush, Jr. signed the No Child Left Behind Act into becoming a legislation. One element encompassed in the NCLB (2002) is its emphasis on the use of standardized, end of course tests in math and reading, with sanctions imposed on schools that do not perform according to state standards. ESEA (1994) and NCLB (2002) placed standardized tests on the priority list, and schools are compelled to utilize the results as a basis for measuring student achievement. In order to monitor progress, schools have adopted various initiatives as a way to focus on results through the collection of data. Tilly, (2006) identifies the example of some educators who believe that the newest educational fad is RtI.
Bianco, (2010) and Erickson, Gaumer, Pattie and Jenson, (2012) provided specific details about Tier 1, Tier 2, and Tier 3, which are the foundation of RtI. The first level of instruction, Tier 1 is also known as core reading instruction. Generally, Tier 1 takes place in a regular classroom setting, where students participate in a core, scientifically-based reading program. Tier 1 is presented in a whole group format and includes independent student practice. The scientifically-based reading program focuses on word study, vocabulary, fluency, and comprehension. Tier 1 is provided for at least 90 minutes each school day. Students are tested on benchmarks covered during Tier 1 at least three times during the academic school year, typically during the beginning, the middle, and the end of the school year. The purpose of testing students is so that teachers can determine and address their students’ learning needs. When a student is unsuccessful during Tier 1 the teacher serves as the sole interventionist. Teachers who provide Tier 1 must continually participate pedagogical in professional development, which provides them with strategies needed to ensure that each student receives high-quality core reading instruction. Students, who do not demonstrate sufficient progress during Tier 1, enter into Tier 2, which encompasses a different purpose and format (Bianco, 2010; Erickson et al., 2012).
Bianco (2010) and Erickson et al. (2012) reported that Tier 2 is the second level of reading instruction. The purpose of Tier 2 is to provide students, who were identified as struggling readers during Tier 1, with strategic interventions that will address their specific learning needs. During Tier 2, struggling readers are provided with instruction, which supplement the instruction they received during whole group lessons.
The typical amount of time allotted for Tier 2 is 30 to 60 minutes each school day. Unlike Tier 1, Tier 2 takes place within a small group setting, which usually consists of no more than 6 students. Also unlike Tier 1, which requires students to be tested three times a year, during Tier 2, students’ progress is monitored every two weeks. Also during Tier 2, students received in depth scientifically based reading instruction that also emphasizes word study, vocabulary, fluency, and comprehension. During Tier 2, teachers also provide additional modeling, scaffolding, practice, and feedback. Unlike Tier 1, which only utilizes teachers as interventionist, additional personnel such as teacher assistants and other trained individuals, who have been designated by the school may provide Tier 2 interventions. However, all Tier 2 interventionist must continually participate in professional development. When a student does not demonstrate adequate progress within the Tier 2 intervention, the student enters into Tier 3 (Bianco, 2010; Erickson et al., 2012).
The third level of instruction reported by Bianco (2010) and Erickson et al. (2012) is Tier 3. The purpose of Tier 3 is to provide intensive reading instruction for students, who continue to demonstrate significant reading difficulties after receiving Tier 1 and Tier 2. Tier 3 is typically provided in addition to Tier 1 and Tier 2 for 30 to 60 minutes each day. Tier 3 consists of intensive reading strategies, which target extreme reading deficits. Similar to Tier 2, Tier 3 intervention may include an increased amount of time. However, during Tier 3, teachers may also use of different materials and smaller group sizes. Tier 3 is also similar to both Tier 1 and Tier 2 in that it focuses on word study, vocabulary, fluency, and comprehension. However, Tier 3 includes intensive scientifically based reading instruction, which has been designed to explicitly, systematic, and corrective activities for students. As with Tier 2, Tier 3 interventions may be provided by someone other than the teacher. However, all Tier 3 interventionists must participate in the on-going professional development. Additionally, Bianco, (2010); Erickson et al., (2012) identify that students may participate in Tier 3 outside of their classroom or in any setting which has been designated by the teachers and administrators. The progress of students who participate in Tier 3 is monitored at intervals of one to two weeks.
Tilly, (2006) asserted that the national initiative has two facets; formative assessment and progress monitoring. RtI is simply providing research based curriculum instruction and assessment to students on tiers based on their specific needs as identified through data analysis (Tilly, 2006). Schools are able to identify potential dropouts by analyzing assessment data (Balfanz & Legters, 2004). According to Williams (2009), a benchmark assessment is designed to be an interim assessment that can be used for both formative and summative purposes and they allow educators to monitor students’ progress towards standards mastery and to predict their performance on the end of year exams.
As the district schools seek resources to assist them fully implement RtI, vendors are eager to sell their newest packaged program and materials thus schools are using computerized instructions and assessment programs to assist them increase their test scores. Gersten, (2008) illustrates data that is useful in identifying students who are at risk of failure in math/reading and need more intensive instruction. Alabama schools are implementing benchmark assessments in middle schools in order to begin early intervention for students at risk of dropping out and schools must begin early to identify and provide intervention to students who do not master the benchmark assessment (Alabama State Department of Education, 2013). Increasing the graduation rate has become a priority in Alabama schools. This study described one way of identifying students who may be at risk of failing state mandated standardized tests.
For instance, a nine grader who is perceived as being on the right track has a higher chance of graduating at the end of the course as compared to a ninth grader who was not on track. Bolfanz and Legters (2004) inferred that a student who does not show academic growth in the 9th grade is most likely to fail or drop out. According to Bolfanz and Legters (2004), seven states have graduation rates lower than Alabama: Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, Nevada, New Mexico, and South Carolina. On the other hand, demographic data show that white students in Alabama graduate at a rate of 75.8% compared to 65.4% for African Americans.
Renaissance STAR reading assessments are a way to assist schools with tracking children’s chances of graduating (Allensworth & Easton, 2005). If used correctly, this type of formative assessment can be used to inform teachers and parents of problems with how well students are responding to research based instruction. Schools across the nation are seeking ways to increase the high school dropout rates in public schools. The research is also based on discussions given by different authors on how middle schools try to identify students who are at risk of failing in their assessments thus helping reduce their chances or repeating their grade classes and dropping out of school. STAR Reading is a computer based software program that is used as a universal screener and progress monitoring tool for students in grades k-8.
According to data released by USDOE (2012), the percentage of graduating students from Alabama state has increased tremendously. In spite of the increase, the percentage number of students graduating from this state remains considerably low when compared to the national average. These empirical statistics imply that the graduation rates in Alabama are still low and as a result, the state has been lagging behind when compared to its neighboring states.
In order to gauge or predict the number of students who are likely to pass the end of year assessments, districts have begun to implement formative assessments as a quick way to gather data about student performance. Yeo (2009) contended that increased emphasis on scores have prompted districts to utilize predictive assessment tools to identify struggling students early in the school year (Allensworth & Easton, 2005). This type of formative evaluation offer an advantage of collecting data during the instructional process and being able to adjust instruction based on the data. (Deno & Espin, 1991; Shinn & Smolkowski, 2002).
This proposed study will address issues on how tutoring assessment is utilized to predict the chances of students’ success during the end of year assessment. Pompham (2010, p. 138) contends that formative assessment is a planned process in which assessment elicits evidence on the status of the students and thus it is used by teachers to adjust their ongoing instructional procedures.
With regard to the same topic, Herman (2009) asserts that very little research has been conducted relative to the effectiveness of benchmark testing. Brown and Coughlin (2007) insist that specific guidelines must be established to analyze the reliability of assessment items prior to utilizing them. Universal screening provides benchmark assessments which are aligned with Alabama standards and administered three times each year. These assessments are used to formatively place students in learning tiers and to allow teachers to monitor progress and predict performance on state end of course tests (Williams, 2009).
It is imperative that students are demonstrating high levels of performance in their end of year assessments (Amrein, Berlin, & Rideaus, 2010). Yeo (2009) writes that schools have responded to achievement scores by using predictive assessments in order to identify students who might be in need of special learning assistance. Bransford, Brown, and Cocking (2000) identify that assessment is a core component for effective teaching.
State assessments should be aligned with state standards indicating which concepts and skills students need (Wiggins, McTighe, & Tyler, 2011). STAR is administered to determine if students who perform well on STAR perform well on the ARMT. Herman (2009) indicated that little research has been done on the effectiveness of benchmark tests, and the reliability of school developed benchmark testing is significant.
1.7 Need for the Study
Describe the need for the study. Provide a rationale or need for studying a particular issue or phenomenon. Describe how the study is relevant to your specialization area.
Schools must have a way to monitor students who need intervention (Gersen, 2008). Furthermore, they need to know whether or not the tools they are using are valid and reliable predictor on the expected performance at the end of the year assessments. The reason for examining sixth grade, in this study is motivated by a recent decision by the department of curriculum and instruction that STAR reading does not have to be used beyond the elementary grades. Should this study show a relationship between the two assessments, this policy may be changed, and students may be assessed using STAR throughout middle and high school.
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1.8 Methodology
Describe the basic quantitative approach and methodology you propose to use. State whether the study will be descriptive, experimental or quasi-experimental, etc. State the name of the specific type of design to be used and describe the method(s) will you use to collect the data.
This study will utilize quantitative methods of research and analyze the data from sixth graders at three middle schools in Alabama to determine if a significant relationship exists between students’ scores on the STAR and the ARMT. The sixth grade was chosen because it is the first year of middle school and also marks the transition in the curriculum.
Leedy and Ormrod (2013) stated that quantitative research presented empirical and statistical evidence that helps explain given social phenomenon or problem. The use of quantitative research is seconded by the fact that it can be used to investigate larger population samples since it uses statistical analysis to summarize findings thus facilitate making inferences (Cozby & Bates, 2012). Quantitative research design also identifies an experimental design, which includes both independent and dependent variables. According to Creswell (2012), quantitative research designs attempt to maximize objectivity and are easier to be replicated thus ensuring credibility of the research findings. The results of quantitative studies can also most often be generalized to larger populations. Specifically, because quantitative research designs are not inclusive of the researchers’ bias, perceptions, and experience, the process is more objective. Furthermore, the use of numerical data from instruments such as surveys and make the results more valid.
Cohen, Marion, and Morrison (2013) reported that there are several types of quantitative research designs: (1) descriptive; (2) correlational, (3) causal comparative; and (4) an experimental research design. A causal comparative research design seeks to establish a cause and effect relationships between an independent variable and a dependent variable (Cohen, Minion, & Morrison, 2013). The current research study will utilize a causal comparative design in order to determine whether or not a computer assistive test is an effective tool for predicting student performance on the Alabama reading and math test.
STAR was used to determine students reading levels during the first semester. These same students took the ARMT in May. The scores from STAR will be compared to ARMT to identify the levels each students fall within. The results can be used to provide early intervention for those at risk of failure. T-tests will be utilized along with a correlational analysis using Pearson’s product-moment correlation coefficient abbreviated as Pearson r.
Data Collection
Archival data will be collected from 2012-2013 school year. The students’ names will be coded for confidentiality purposes. The names will be matched to ensure that students who took STAR also took ARMT the same year or vice versa. This is to ensure validity and reliability. The data will be disaggregated by test year, school, gender, ethnicity, and students with disabilities.
Data will be retrieved from district data warehousing systems.
Assumptions/Limitations:
Several assumptions were made for this study. First of all, the population of students is the same for both tests. Also, both tests are reliable instruments with the test items correlated or aligned. A regression analysis could be used to determine if the sample is a representation of the population, the variables are normally distributed and there is a straight line for independent and dependent arable. There must be variance of errors or variables must be error free.
Ethical considerations have been addressed; student’s names will not be used to ensure anonymity. The Superintendent has given permission to conduct the study prior to research plan being submitted.
DISSERTATION RESEARCHERS: STOP!!!
Forward completed Section 1 plus your references gathered so far to your Mentor for review and for Specialization Chairs’ Approval. (Work on your full Literature Review while waiting for topic approval)
Section 2. Advancing Scientific Knowledge
DISSERTATION RESEARCHERS: Do not complete remaining sections until you have received topic approval.
Your study should advance the scientific knowledge base in your field by meeting one or more of these four criteria:
The study should address something that is not known or has not been studied before.
The study should be new or different from other studies in some way.
The study should extend prior research on the topic in some way.
The study should fill a gap in the existing literature.
Specifically describe how your research will advance scientific knowledge on your topic by answering all of these questions. Include in-text citations as needed.
2.1 Advancing Scientific Knowledge
Demonstrate how the study (a) will advance the scientific knowledge base; (b) is grounded in the field of education; and (c) addresses something that is not known, something that is new or different from prior research, something that extends prior research, or something that fills a gap in the existing literature. Describe precisely how your study will add to the existing body of literature on your topic. It can be a small step forward in a line of current research but it must add to the body of scientific knowledge in your specialization area and on the topic.
1.
To respond to this question you will need to:
Provide a paragraph that describes the background for your study and how your research question relates to the background of the study.
Background
According to the US DOE, the implementation of NCLB (2002) has caused educators to focus on assessment as an integral part of the teaching and learning process. Educators are using formative assessment strategies to gauge how well students are likely to perform during the state mandated summative assessments. Lembke and Stecker (2007) asserts that the passage of this law has left these districts schools with no option but to produce positive outcomes for all students while monitor student growth over time. This has been implemented in most of the districts in form of formative benchmark assessments. Marshall (2005) contends that through the utilization of ongoing, frequent, formative assessments, school administrators have begun to marvel at the results they are receiving after the assessments. School personnel are interested in utilizing periodic benchmarks to predict student performance on end of year accountability tests (Olson, 2005). This study proposes to add to the existing knowledge base by providing additional formative assessment methods which can predict student outcomes when undertaking the state mandated tests.
Previous researches on the topic have identified that through current mandated reform standards, public schools and Head Starts are responsible for implementing high-quality intervention programs to help improve reading achievement of at-risk students (van Kleeck & Schuele, 2010). Early Reading First, Response to Intervention, Reading First, NCLB Act of 2001, IDEA, and the National Reading Panel (2000) collectively support the development and implementation of models to endorse early literacy development with at-risk students (Gettinger & Stoiber, 2010). The current shift toward implementing and developing systematic evidence-based growth models as an intervention ensures a child entering kindergarten will have the prerequisites to become good readers (Gettinger & Stoiber, 2010). In research, five essential elements of scientific-based reading procedures, including phonics, phonemic awareness, fluency, reading comprehension, and vocabulary, are pinpointed, which are important to early literacy development and future success in reading achievement (Podhajski et al., 2009). This study therefore borrows from the scientific based procedures thus guiding the answering of the research question.
Through the use of Star reading Computer Adaptive Test (CAT), schools claim to be able to predict whether or not students who score proficient on their benchmark will also show proficiency on the Alabama Reading and Math Test. The purpose of this type of formative assessment is to target students’ areas of weakness to be able to address learning disabilities before students fail or get too far behind (McGlinchey & Hixon, 2004). In o rder to ensure that students are showing academic growth, schools need valid, reliable means by which to measure their progress throughout the year. (Stecker, Lemble, & Foegen, 2008). This study has the potential to add to the field of curriculum and instruction by advancing knowledge in the field of tutorial skills. This study will build on the research of Yeo (2009), Fuchs (2004), and Lembke and Stecker (2007). If the findings are deemed worthy, this study will provide a means of predicting student outcomes in an effort to be able to examine the effectiveness of classroom instruction, modify instructional practices, and provide empirical intervention. This study can serve to inform school districts on whether or not STAR reading assessment is a predictor of students’ success on the reading portion of the Alabama Reading and Math Test.
Researchers across the United States are seeking alternative indicators in order to establish the predictive validity between various reading programs’ benchmark assessments and state assessments. Several similar studies have compared benchmark test results to end of year state assessments (Shadish, Cook & Campbell, 2002). One study addressed the correlation between Academy of Reading and Georgia End of Course Test (Brazelton, 2012). The purpose of the study was to determine whether or not a correlation existed between the benchmark formative assessments and the Georgia Ninth Grade Composition end of year summative test. The limitations of this study were that it was limited to Georgia and only two test administrations which was a small sample. Another study was conducted using data from three schools in Southwest Virginia to determine if there was a predictive relationship between fifth grade math scores and their benchmark tests. Predicting how well students will perform on a state test is important (Helwig, Anderson & Tindal, 2002; Happen & Therriault, 2008).
The researcher intends to add to the scientific knowledge by replicating past studies based on recommendations for future research found in past studies (. Scores of sixth grade students from diverse backgrounds and from three different middle schools will be examined in this study.
2.2 Theoretical Implications
Describe the theoretical implications you believe your study could have for the field of education and your specialization area.
The philosophy of education is founded on a constructivists’ theoretical framework that includes the beliefs of Piaget (1952), Bruner (1966), Dewey (1933), and Vygotsky (1962). Piaget (1952) is known for his learning stages including sensory motor, pre operational concrete operational, and formal operational. Bruner (1966) is remembered for the five E’s: engage, explore, explain, elaborate and evaluate. Bruner’s (1966) theories contend that students construct their own learning. Dewey (1933) theorized that children should engage in real life applications and collaboration with other students. He contends that knowledge is constructed from previous experiences. Finally, Vygotsky (1962) focuses on scaffolding as a teaching strategy which is utilized in conjunction with the students’ zone of proximal development which is the “distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development under adult guidance, or in collaboration with more capable peers” (Anderson, 1993, p. 134). This theoretical framework is relevant to the current study because Renaissance Star Reading identifies students’ Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) that is defined as the range of reading that a student can engage in without reaching a level of frustration. The ZPD uses a grade equivalent to estimate the zone of proximal development, which is based on the Vygotsky’s (1962) learning theory.
Quantitative Research is “an inquiry into a social or human problem based on testing a theory composed of variables, measured with numbers, and analyzed with statistical procedures, in order to determine whether or not the predictive generalizations of the theory hold true (Creswell, 1994). If successful, this process can continue to be replicated so that schools can make the right decisions relative to purchasing products claiming to predict student outcomes.
2.3 Practical Implications
Describe any practical implications that may result from your research. Specifically, describe any implications the research may have for understanding phenomena for practitioners, the population being studied, or a particular type of work, mental health, educational, community, stakeholders or other setting.
There is a paucity of research on what to do with benchmark assessment scores. (Herman & Baker 2005; Shepard, 2010; Protheroe, 2009). Wiggins and McTighe (1998) discussed assessment as an integral component in the learning process. They write that if mastery is not achieved, teachers should find a different method of delivering and applying a different form of assessment. Too often, schools use either teacher made or store bought assessment tools to label students; however, many aspects of benchmark assessments have not been well-researched (Brown & Coughlin, 2007). These assessments are only relevant if they are applied to the curriculum so that they can be used to predict students’ success during state assessments (Wood, 2006). For instance, if it is noted that a students who did not score proficiently in Star also exhibited a non-mastery on the ARMT, then, it is assumed that the placement of students for intervention was accomplished.
Review of Section 2. Advancing Scientific Knowledge
Does the study advance scientific knowledge in the field and the specialization area by meeting one or more of these four criteria?
Does the study address something that is not known or has not been studied before?
Is this study new or different from other studies in some way?
Does the study extend prior research on the topic in some way?
Does the study fill a gap in the existing literature?
_____YES ____ NO
Reviewer Comments:
Section 3. Contributions of the Proposed Study to the Field
3.1 Contributions to the Field
Briefly describe the primary theoretical basis for the study. Describe the major theory (or theories) that will serve as the foundation for the research problem and research questions and provide any corresponding citations.
According to Linn (2000), as early as 1920, students were assessed using SAT. In the 1950s, testing was being used for accountability and by the 1990s, standards based assessments began to be administered (Linn, 2000). This assertions are seconded by the constructivist theory which is also known as a theory of epistemology or knowledge. The theory formulated by Jean Piaget posits that human beings have the inert ability to generate meaning and knowledge by interacting their experiences with ideas. The theory is relevant to this study since it determines the interaction between behavioral patterns, reflexes and human experiences which are subtle factors in enhancing the learning process. The theory has been supported by other theorists such as Seymour Paper in his educational theory which borrows heavily from the constructivist theory (Ryan, 2006). Collectively, the two theories emphasize on experiential learning. It is believed that Piaget’s constructivist theory has greatly impacted on learning and teaching processes in the education sector and this makes the theory relevant to this study as it seeks to induce educational reforms.
In line with the theory, Linn (2000) stated that the assessment provides necessary documentation for the state of schools and a method by which educators are able to make informed decisions about student learning. Researchers suggested that there should exist a substantial predictive relationship between scores on benchmarks and scores on end of year tests (Herman, Mellard, & Linn, 2009; Helwig, Anderson, & Tindal, 2002; Ryan, 2006; Hintz & Christ, 2004). Literature by Black and William (1998) stated that assessments represent a constructivist view. The researchers also asserted that formative and summative assessments are interconnected, although formative has the greatest impact on student learning (Black & Wiliam, 1998). Annual state tests provide a comprehensive view of how well students are performing, however, benchmark assessments are needed to determine which students are prepared (Pompham, 2009). It is difficult to determine if benchmark assessments are, indeed, valid predictors of end of year tests; therefore, the entire process could be flawed if there are not actual predictors. Good predictive assessments provide teachers with timely, relevant data to be able to develop needed interventions for students (McGlin, Chey, & Hixson, 2004).
3.2 Contributions to the Field
Your study should contribute to research theory in your field by meeting one or more of these four criteria:
A. The study should generate new theory.
B. The study should refine or add to an existing theory.
C. The study should test to confirm or refute a theory.
D. The study should expand theory by telling us something new about application or processes
Describe how your study will contribute to research theory in your field by meeting one or more of these four criteria.
A. This study proposes to generate new theory about whether or not STAR reading computer adaptive test is a predictor of student performance on the ARMT. Furthermore, the findings from this study are expected to aid teachers and administrators about the impact of STAR on the ARMT
B. This study will add to existing theories about the validity or reliability of formative benchmark assessments.
C. This test will confirm whether or not STAR is a predictor of success on the ARMT.
D. This study will tell us something new about the relationship between the two noted assessments.
This study has the potential to advance the knowledge base in the area of benchmark tests used as predictors and build on existing research that posits that STAR is an accurate predictor of state tests. This study will expand theory by providing new information about the predictive nature of a benchmark test on students’ performance on end of year state tests.
Review of Section 3. Contributions to the Field
Does the Research make a contribution to research theory in one or more of these four ways?
Does the research generate a new theory?
Does the research refine or add to a new theory?
Does the research test to confirm or refute theory?
Does the research expand theory by telling us something new about application or processes?
_____YES ____ NO
Reviewer Comments
Section 4. Methodology Details
4.1 Purpose of the Study
Describe the purpose of the study.
Why are you doing it? (The answer must be grounded in the literature in what has been done–hasn’t been done or needs to be done.)
Creswell (2008) wrote that the purpose statement, the most important part of the study, provides the reader a clear direction and focus as to why research is being conducted. The purpose of this study is to determine whether or not a correlation exists between the scores students received on the computer adaptive program, STAR reading, and their scores on the Alabama reading and math test. The data obtained from this study will be used to determine if STAR is the best tool to use for tiered instruction and intervention.
Assessment is a high priority for districts and should be developed prior to the curriculum (Wiggins & McTighe, 2006) Frequent benchmark assessment and progress monitoring are essential components of RTI, RTI is a fundamental intervention practice which affords students the opportunity to receive modified or adjusted instructions based on how they respond to research based best practices (Fuchs & Fuchs, 2006).
District school are seeking benchmark assessments in order to identify students at risk of failing benchmark tests (Silberglitt & Hintzel, 2005) A quantitative study will be used evaluate the utilization of STAR as a predictor for mastery on the Alabama Reading and Math Test. The following questions will be addressed in this study:
Research Question/Hypothesis
RQ1 – What is the extent of the relationship, if any, between student performance on STAR reading benchmark tests and performance on the ARMT?
RH1 – Student performance on the STAR is correlated to their performance on the ARMT.
H01 – Student performance on the STAR is not correlated to their performance on the ARMT.
RQ2 – Is there a statistically significant correlation between sixth grade students’ performance on STAR and on ARMT?
RH2- There is a statistically significant correlation between sixth grade students’ performance on STAR and on ARMT.
H02 – There is not a statistically significant correlation difference between sixth grade students’ performance
RQ3 – Is the STAR formative assessment a predictor of student performance on the standardized ARMT?
RH3 – STAR formative assessment is a predictor of student performance on the standardized ARMT.
H01 – STAR formative assessment is not a predictor of student performance on the standardized ARMT.
Variables:
Two variables will be identified for this study:
Dependent variable – students’ scaled scores on the Alabama Reading and Math Test in March, 2012
Independent variable – Predictor variables – the students’ scores on the STAR during first semester.
This study will inform the area of curriculum and instruction by determining the predictability of a benchmark assessment, and provide districts with information about whether or not the purchased assessment is indeed conducive for determining which students will be successful. There was a study conducted to determine how a particular benchmark assessment was implemented to predict American Indians’ scores on the end of course assessments (Stiggins & DeFour, 2009). Little research has been conducted to determine whether or not STAR reading is a predictor of success on the ARMT.
Review of 4.1 Purpose of the Study
Is the purpose of the study clearly stated?
_____YES ____ NO
Reviewer comments:
4.2 Research Design
Describe the research design you will use. Start by specifically stating the type of quantitative approach you will use (descriptive, experimental, and quasi-experimental), include the exact name or type of design to be used and describe the exact method(s) (archival, survey, observations) you will use to collect the data. Briefly describe how the study will be conducted.
The research design of this study is quantitative using descriptive statistics (Salkind, 2008). The design was determined by the research question. A non-experimental correlation design will show the relationships between the two variables. Quantitative data are used to investigate larger population samples and are based on statistical analysis of data (Cozby & Bates, 2012). Quantitative research design also identifies an experimental design, which include independent and dependent variables. According to Creswell (2012), quantitative research designs attempt maximize objectivity and are easier to be replicated. The results of the study will be summarizing using visual representation tools such as scatterplot and graphs (Salkind, 2008).
First, the researcher wishes to determine if a relationship exists between STAR benchmark assessment and Alabama Reading and Math test reading section. Next, the researcher seeks to determine if STAR is a predictor of performance on the ARMT. A quantitative, correlational research design will be used to determine if a predictive relationship exists between two assessments. Pearson’s r will be used to compute a numeric linear relationship between the scores on the two assessments (Pagano, 2004). In correlational research design, two variables are measured and recorded (Creswell, 2013). Next, the measurements are reviewed in order to determine if a relationship exists and if so, what the extent of the relationship is for making predictions. The predictor variable, the scores from the STAR and the criterion variable, the scores from the ARMT will be analyzed.
Correlational research attempts to determine whether and to what degree a relationship exists between two or more quantifiable variables. However, it never establishes a cause-effect relationship. The relationship is expressed by correlation coefficient, which is a number between .00 and 1.00. (Gay, 1996). Permission from Capella IRB and the district Superintendent will be obtained. Data will be gathered from a data warehousing system. SPSS will be used to aggregate and analyze the data. The results will be analyzed by the help of competent statisticians who will guide in making inferences regarding the quantitative data collected. The results will then be reported.
Review of 4.2 Research Design
Does the research design proposed seem appropriate for the research question? Is the research design clearly and accurately described? Can the design answer the research questions or test the hypotheses with the proposed sample, design and analysis?
_____YES ____ NO
Reviewer Comments
4.3 Population and Sample
Describe the characteristics of the larger population from which the sample (study participants) will be drawn. Next describe the sample that will participate in the study and justify the sample size using a power analysis or some other justification supported in the literature.
The variables will be test scores of both male and female students of all races and ethnicities. The data to be used for the study will include the scores for the 2011 administration of the STAR reading benchmark assessment and the results of the state mandated ARMT from May of 2012 will be utilized.
The population consists of randomly selected sixth graders at traditional middle schools. Only the students’ scores of the students who took both tests will be included in the study. In order to ensure that the sample size is adequate to get a large representation of scores the sample will consist of approximately 500 students of both genders. Larger samples are needed for heterogeneous populations (Leedy & Ormond, 2001). The population is 1600; therefore an adequate sample has been selected because if the population is 1500, 20% should be sampled (Gay, 1996). Statistical validity considers the larger sample to reveal more accurate results (Creswell, 2003).
Review of 4.3 Population and Sample
Are the population and the sample fully and accurately described? Is the sample size appropriate?
_____YES ____ NO
Reviewer Comments
4.4 Sampling Procedures
Describe how you plan to select the sample. Be sure to list the name of the specific sampling strategy you will use. Describe each of the steps from recruitment through contact and screening to consenting to participate in the study. Provide enough detail so that someone else would be able to follow this recipe to replicate the study.
Random sampling will be used in this study. No actual student names will be used but pseudonyms will be used to represent the scores on both tests. The sample criteria are the essential characteristics necessary for the target population (Burns & Grove, 2001). Scores of all sixth grade students from the three “priority schools” will be utilized. The students at these schools are administered the STAR test and their scores drive the curriculum that they are placed into for intervention.
The criteria for this study include:
Students must have participated in the spring administration of the STAR.
Students must have participated in the summer administration of the ARMT.
Students must be first time sixth graders.
Steps from recruitment, contact and screening to consenting and participating:
1. According to Burns and Grove (2001), confidentiality must be adhered to. The researcher proposes not to link the students to the data but to use Pseudonyms to represent the scores on the two assessments.
2. The researcher will maintain privacy in all aspects of the study.
3. The researcher will obtain permission from the superintendent and Institutional Review Board at Capella University.
The researchers will gather the scores from the district data warehousing system and enter the scores into the SPSS to be disaggregated and charted.
Review of 4.4 Sampling Procedures
Is participant involvement and participant selection fully described and appropriate for the study?
_____YES ____ NO
Reviewer Comments
4.5 Instruments
Describe in detail all data collection instruments and measures (tests, questionnaires, scales, interview protocols, and so forth). This section should include a description of each instrument or measure, any demographic information you plan to collect, its normative data, validity and reliability statistics. Include (A) citations for published measures, (B) data type(s) generated by each measure, and (C) available psychometric information (including validity & reliability coefficients for each Scale or instrument.
Explain how each variable will be operationally defined and the scale of measurement used for each variable (nominal, ordinal, interval, ratio).
Attach a copy of each instrument you plan to use as an appendix to your RESEARCH PLAN. If permission is required to use the instrument, please attach a copy of documentation showing that you have permission to use the instrument.
The ARMT is a criterion-referenced test. It consists of selected items from the Stanford Achievement Test (Stanford 10) which matches the Alabama state content standards in reading and mathematics. Additional test items were developed to be included so that all content standards were fully covered. It is this combination of Stanford 10 items and newly developed items that is known as the ARMT. The ARMT has a 100% alignment to the Alabama state content standards in reading and mathematics.
Decades of research have shown that Computer Adaptive Tests such as STAR reading can be considerably more efficient than conventional tests that present all students with the same test questions. (Lord, 1980; McBride & Martinn, 1983). The ARMT is a standards based assessment used to determine mastery of state curricula.
The researcher will gather anonymous data from each administration as the research instruments for this study. The students test scores will be gleaned from sixth grade students at three middle schools in Alabama. An analysis of 500 scores will determine if a statistically significant correlation exists between students’ performance on the STAR and the ARMT. The performance groups will be all students who took both tests, low scores, middle scores, and high scores.
The criterion variable will be the ARMT scores, and the predictor variable will be the STAR scores.
Review of 4.5 Instruments
Are any instrument(s), measures, scales, to be used, appropriate for this study? Do the reliability and validity measures of all measurement instruments or scales justify using the instrument?
_____YES ____ NO
Reviewer Comments
4.6 Data Collection Procedures
Describe where and how you will get the data and describe the exact procedure(s) that will be used to collect the data. This is a step-by-step description of exactly how the research will be conducted. This should read like a recipe for the data collection procedures to be followed in your study. Be sure to include all the necessary details so that someone else will be able to clearly understand how you will obtain your data.
Muijs (2004) displayed a quantitative model in which he refers to the people or things that data is collected from as units or cases. The data collected are called variables, which by definition mean “different data” and the research question is based on the relationship between or amongst the data sets. Before data can be collected, approval must be obtained from the superintendent and the Internal Review Board of Capella University. A sample approval letter must be attached. Upon receipt of written approval, test scores from the district data warehousing system will be utilized. Data included will be:
2011 Fall administration of the Star reading assessment
2012 Spring administration of the ARMT reading assessment
Students’ scores on the STAR.
Students’ scores on the ARMT.
Although ARMT data is public information, STAR data has to be obtained through assignment of a password. Once the data has been gathered descriptive statistics consisting of the mean, median, mode, standard deviation, and scores will be computed using SPSS. This type of relationship will be distributed visually by a scatter plot (Creswell, 2013).
Review of 4.6 Data Collection Procedures
Does the mentee describe in detail the procedure to be followed in a step-by-step way so that it is completely clear how the research will be conducted? Is the data collection appropriate for the proposed study?
_____YES ____ NO
Reviewer Comments
4.7 Proposed Data Analyses
List the research question and sub-questions, followed by the null and alternative or research hypotheses (in quantitative studies) for each research question. Then describe all methods and all procedures for data analysis including: (a) types of data to be analyzed, (b) organizing raw data, (c) managing and processing data, (d) preparation of data for analysis, (e) the actual data analyses to be conducted to answer each of the research questions and/or to test each hypothesis, including descriptive statistics, any hypothesis tests and any post-hoc analyses, and describe (f) storage and protection of data.
Note: Be sure to include the level of measurement you will use for your variables in the analyses.
Research Question/Hypothesis
RQ1 – What is the extent of the relationship between student performance on STAR reading benchmark tests and performance on the ARMT?
RH1 – Student performance on the STAR is absolutely correlated to their performance on the ARMT.
H01 – Student performance on the STAR is not correlated to their performance on the ARMT.
RQ2 – Is there a statistically significant correlation between sixth grade students’ performance on STAR and on ARMT?
RH2- There is a statistically significant correlation between sixth grade students’ performance on STAR and on ARMT.
H02 – There is not a statistically significant correlation difference between sixth grade students’ performance
RQ3 – Is the STAR formative assessment a predictor of student performance on the standardized ARMT?
RH3 – STAR formative assessment is a predictor of student performance on the standardized ARMT.
H01 – STAR formative assessment is not a predictor of student performance on the standardized ARMT.
Variables:
Two variables will be identified for this study:
Dependent variable – students’ scaled scores on the Alabama Reading and Math Test in March, 2012
Independent variable – Predictor variables – the students’ scores on the STAR during first semester.
A Pearson r, will be conducted to determine the strength of the relationship between the STAR and ARMT. The groups will be divided into low, middle, and high performing based on scaled scores and cut scores. Results will be analyzed by SPSS and the scatter plot will show scores on horizontal and vertical axes.
Proficient scores on the ARMT will be compared to proficient scores on the STAR.
Review of 4.7 Proposed Data Analyses
Is the data analysis that is proposed appropriate? Is there alignment between the research questions, proposed methodology, type or types of data to be collected and proposed data analysis? Is the language used to describe the type of design and data analysis plans consistent throughout?
_____YES ____ NO
Reviewer Comments
4.8 Expected Findings
Describe the expected results of the data analysis. Discuss the expected outcome of each of the hypotheses and discuss whether or not your expectations are consistent with the research literature on the topic. Provide in-text citations and references in the reference section.
Research Question/Hypothesis
RH1 – Students performance on the STAR is expected to show a relationship with their performance on the ARMT.
RH2- There is a statistically significant correlation between sixth grade students’ performance on STAR and on ARMT.
RH3 – STAR formative assessment is a predictor of student performance on the standardized ARMT.
The hypotheses will be addressed by using the Pearson correlation between the STAR and ARMT. A statistically significant positive correlation would allow the researcher to reject H01. A p-value less than .05 would suggest a statistically significant correlation between the two assessments (Creswell, 2012).
Variables:
Two variables will be identified for this study:
Dependent variable – students’ scaled scores on the Alabama Reading and Math Test in March, 2012
Independent variable – Predictor variables – the students’ scores on the STAR during first semester.
Review of 4.8 Expected Findings
Does the mentee clearly describe the expected findings? Does the mentee discuss the expected findings in the context of the current literature on the topic?
_____YES ____ NO
Reviewer Comments
Section 5. References
Provide references for all citations in APA style. Submit your reference list below.
Review of Section 5 References
References
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Brown, R. S., & Coughlin, E. (2007). The predictive validity of selected benchmark
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Bruner, J.S. (1966). Toward a theory of instruction. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of
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Has the Researcher presented appropriate citations and references in APA style?
_____YES ____ NO
Reviewer Comments
Review of Scholarly Writing
Does the Researcher communicate in a scholarly, professional manner that is consistent with the expectations of academia and of the field of education?
_____YES ____ NO
Reviewer Comments:
Learner: Stop here and submit to your Mentor for final approval. Continue working on your final literature review while you wait for Research Plan approval.
Mentor: This form must be approved by all committee members prior to submission for Research Plan review. Please send completed and approved RP to dissertation@capella.edu for Research Plan review.
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Date Approved:___________________________
Further Reviewer Comments
This section is not part of determining Research Plan approval. This is an optional space for the Research Plan Reviewer to make note of any practical or ethical concerns. Reviewers are not expected to comment on these issues but they can make comments or recommendations if they believe these may be helpful. It is recommended that mentors and researchers carefully consider any comments made here as it may help flag issues or problems that need to be addressed before the researcher moves forward or before the study is submitted for ethical review which will be conducted by the IRB.
Optional Reviewer Comments:
This has been a Scientific Merit Review. Obtaining Scientific Merit approval does not mean you will obtain IRB approval.
Once you have obtained scientific merit approval move forward to write your dissertation proposal. It should be easy because the methodology section of the Research Plan corresponds directly to the sections included in the School of Education’s Dissertation Chapter 3 Guide.
If a mentee does not pass the scientific merit review on the 3rd attempt, then the case will be referred to the Research Specialist in the School of Education and/or the Research Chair for review, evaluation and intervention. Mentees, mentors and reviewers should make every attempt possible to resolve issues before the SMR is failed on
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