The Commercial Training Manager at Etihad Airways, Sunil Joshua supervises a team of 30 trainers and 4 line managers countrywide. A conspicuous observation is simplicity of his relations with his followers and the level of team work observed within his team. He can be considered an authentic leader because he has played the role of empowering his trainers to a level where they do not depend on him to run their daily routines and where they can effectively make relevant decisions to promote the objectives of the company. In addition, he fosters an open relationship with his followers where their personal lives are considered an important aspect of success; and thus encourages them to effectively balance their careers and personal lives.
Sunil demonstrated authentic leadership when one of his trainer’s wife fell seriously ill and he had to take care of her for several days. Unfortunately, this was the same time that the unit had organized a major training and personnel from different regions had assembled for the event, which is done yearly. Being the facilitator of the training, the team member was at a loss on what to do because both the training and his wife were important aspects of his life. Sunil stepped in and had to travel from another town to facilitate the training. This was a noble act on Sunil’s part and a demonstration of his authentic leadership. Comparing this to the findings by Mital and Dorfman (2012) Sunil as an authentic leader demonstrated that he cares for the welfare of his followers as he did not let the trainer go ahead with the training while leaving his sick wife behind. He also fulfilled the moral obligation of empathy that authentic leaders should possess by understanding that the trainer may not have performed optimally if he went ahead with the training because he would be worried about his wife at the hospital (Pescosolido, 2002). Pettigrew, Thomas and Whittington (2006) note that authentic leaders go out of their way to meet collective objectives and this is effectively demonstrated when Sunil decides to lead the training himself in order to ensure that the meeting is not jeopardized. It is therefore justified to state that Sunil is an authentic leader.
Do you not think that what mentioned above relates to emotional intelligence whereby empathy might be able to be measured as an element of leadership? Libbrecht and Lievens (2012) conducted a study however of EI amongst undergraduate students in Belgium and concluded that EI has little relation with personality but more with performance outcomes. Please see the paper attached and I wonder how the context may differ if this trial was conducted in the Middle East?
Libbrecht, N., and Lievens, F. (2012), Validity evidence for the situational judgment test paradigm in emotional intelligence measurement, International Journal of Psychology. Vol. 47 Issue 6, p438-447.
SAMPLE ANSWER
Emotional Intelligence
Emotional intelligence has been depicted in this context as the ability to use, identify and understand emotions likely to be in a positive way to manage stress hence it released the stress when one of the trainers had to step down and look after his wife who was sick (Daniel, 2015). This kind of leadership exists through empathy and it shows concerns on self being to others. Since emotional understanding has been considered as one of the paradigms in offering situational judgement, the results in explaining the leadership skills are revealed as skills (Libbrecht and Lievens, 2012). As the research concluded, undergraduate students in Belgium Emotional Intelligence (EI) have a little relation with personality but more with the performance outcomes. They are more focussed on what is likely to happen in the future or the main prospects they are to achieve in the long run. Therefore their emotions are mostly geared by the events they will achieve as compared to the attached feelings and personality characteristics (Libbrecht and Lievens, 2012). If the same trial that has been conducted in Belgium has to be conducted in Middle East there will be completely different results. Middle East citizens Emotional Intelligence will be obtained through the difference in the performance (Joshua, 2010). Not all citizens’ emotional capabilities come from the performance but rather more on the personality state. They are more concerned in feelings hence in the situation of a trainers wife being sick none would have come forward and feel the vacuum; they would have cancelled the training activities (Joshua, 2010). The research would have concluded that they are not authentic leaders as their Emotional Intelligence has more relation with personality rather than an attribute in performance.
Libbrecht, N., and Lievens, F. (2012). Validity evidence for the situational judgment test paradigm in emotional intelligence measurement, International Journal of Psychology, 47(6), 438-447.
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Continue to work on the lesson plan and complete the following tasks:
•Provide a purpose and rationale for selecting the lesson(s).
•Describe the philosophical or theoretical basis for teaching approaches used in the lesson.
•1 disease/3 audiences
Provided a purpose for selecting the lesson(s) and included all learners identified in Week 1.
Provided the rationale for selecting the lesson(s) and included all learners identified in Week 1.
Supported answers with relevant examples and articles.
Writing components.
SAMPLE ANSWER
Lesson on diabetes
Importance of a diabetes lesson
Provision of patient education is vital in optimization of patient behavior and patient outcomes in terms of recovery from diabetes. Lessons on diabetes are anticipated to have a positive impact with respect to a reduction in the rate of morbidity, as well as morbidity. Additionally, same-day procedures tend to reduce the time spent by nurses on their patients. These lessons provide a holistic approach, which ensures that patients, their families, and other colleagues obtain health information that is both consistent and comprehensive.
Rationale for the diabetes lesson
Patients suffering from diabetes require comprehensive knowledge on diabetes related information. Patients also require to understand the language and means of communication with their caregivers and amongst themselves. Generally, patients suffering from diabetes require acquisition of life skills on how to cope with life in their current state of health. Diabetes lessons tend to equip the patients with knowledge and skill that are relevant in their recovery, as well as leading a healthy life (Abdul, Aliand Majeed, 2011).
Theoretical basis of teaching method
The location of the teaching facility, which is a hospital facility, prepares the patients psychologically for information that is crucial for their health. The use of books and charts is vital in prompting a practical approach to delivering instructions. Charts are known to support the information contained in literature, which has been captured in the textbooks. The opportunity to ask questions is vital in augmenting what the learners have gained throughout the lesson. Through asking questions and getting feedback, learners will build confidence in practicing what they have learned (Sanjeev, 2012).
Lesson on dinner etiquette
Importance of dinner etiquette lesson
Information on dinner etiquette is vital for responsible family members who want to lead a healthy life. Such lessons are known to cover information on the importance of eating. Additionally, information on the relevance of having dinner as a family can also be taught. Through this lesson, learners will gain information regarding the best cooking methods and the best recipes to be used in preparing a meal. Students will also gain practical knowledge of how to cook boiled rice, beef stew, and vegetables. Making of fruit salads is equally important and will also be taught.
Rationale for the etiquette lesson
Family members are required to live a happy and healthy life. Among the factors that may contribute to this outcome is the availability of good meals for the family. As such, they are required to have knowledge of how to prepare different foods. Moreover, family members require knowledge of preparing meals that conform to the guidelines of feeding on a balanced diet. Feeding on balanced diets will help family members to escape various life threatening diseases such as cardiovascular diseases (Abdul, Aliand Majeed, 2011).
Theoretical basis of teaching method
Lessons on preparation of food require a practical approach apart from learning theory. Issuance of handouts containing information of various cooking methods and preparation of recipes provide family members with a theoretical background of the various methodologies. To gain, a more practical experience, family members are required to be guided through the cooking process via visual and audio cooking sessions. To make the class more interesting, students will be given an opportunity to prepare a meal of their choice (Sanjeev, 2012).
Lesson on dinner staff training
Importance of a staff-training lesson
Staff training sessions are crucial for both employees and employers in the health care profession. Training sessions are vital in imparting the respective employees and employers with skills that are relevant to the medical profession. Normally, staff members must always be ready for any training sessions. As such, it is a requirement for them to learn and acquire new skills.
Rationale for a staff-training lesson
Development of staff members both in knowledge and practice is crucial to their career success. Staff members will always require additional basic skills to improve their performance (Abdul, Aliand Majeed, 2011).
Theoretical basis of teaching method
Teaching methods for employers and employees must embrace their social class. For this reason, a conference room at a particular health care facility or a hotel is vital for a successful training activity. This group of individuals is known to have high academic qualifications, as such they are given the opportunity, in groups, to air their views regarding the training methods applied. Additionally they are also allowed to give feedback on the relevance of the lessons they have been taught, and the skills they have acquired. To ensure their opinion counts, students are given the opportunity to determine the excellent training methods that can be applied in the health care industry (Sanjeev, 2012).
References
Abdul, M.M., Ali, M., & Majeed, K.A. (2011). Role of Teachers in Managing Teaching Learning Situation. Interdisciplinary Journal of Contemporary Research in Business, 3(5): 783-833.
Sanjeev, V., Curtis, W., Janet, S., Tingwei, Z., Kazuya, K. (2012). Holistic, Inclusive and Practical: Teaching plan-making at the core. The Town Planning Review 86(3): 625-645.
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For this distinct project, imagine you are writing a series of short articles for a Bible Dictionary.Bible dictionaries are useful tools to learn more about the books, people, and places we encounter in Scripture.
Your task will be to write:
1. Three concise 200–250-word essays about a book, person, and setting/place from the New Testament (Due at the end of Module/Week 8).
Content Guidelines: Choose 1 book, person, and place from the list of the provided topics for each of the 2 projects.
Your essay must include the following per item:
Book:
Your biblical book essay must include: The basic literary genre, authorship, date written, key themes, purposes, major events, and main personalities.
Person:
This essay must include: The dates of the character’s life, place of birth, summary of their role or positions held, defining events in their life and work, contemporaries (other biblical characters they are associated with, etc.), and their legacy. If they are a biblical author, list the related works.
Setting/Place (i.e., municipality, kingdom, empire):
This essay must include: The keys dates (i.e., founding, demise, etc.), clarification of the location (regional description, the relevance of the place from a biblical/Ancient Near East (ANE) perspective, associated biblical books where it is a backdrop or central location), key attributes (religion, commerce, key figures, etc.), and associated biblical books.
Formatting Guidelines:
• Use 1 Word document for each stage of submission (That is, all of your Old Testament Bible Dictionary Project will be on 1 document, and all of your New Testament Bible Dictionary Project will be on 1 document).
• Use 12-point, Times New Roman font.
• Save your document according to the following filename formats:
TOPICS:
Book: Gospel of John
Person: Jesus
Place/Setting: Golgotha
SAMPLE ANSWER
GOSPEL OF JOHN
Whereas a gospel is an account of an individual’s life, it differs from a biography in that it is intended to influence the believe system of the reader. It is thus founded on a precise purpose that is projected to make a life-changing decision possible from lessons learnt (Yoo, 2013). The gospel of John is a gospel that has managed to capture the account of Jesus’ life vividly – John manages to bring forth in a simple manner the relationship between human and divine.
In his statement “The Word became flesh and made dwelling among us” John reveals to any reader how divinity can ever be united with humanity. It on this premise that Jesus dies appear in human form making it possible to relate to him and thus an example to be followed (Yoo, 2013). In his human nature, he lives a normal life bereft of any extraordinary powers. This makes it easy to appreciate Jesus’ will which is in complete harmony with the will of God.
John treats miracles in a different way from the other gospels. He uses only seven miracles not as evidence to support the claim of Jesus as the true messiah, but to bring forth spiritual lessons (Yoo, 2013). As a result of this strategy, the Gospel of John emerges as having a great presentation of the meaning of Christianity – without having necessarily to depend on the historical verification or scientific accuracy.
JESUS:
Jesus also known as Christ which means a messiah or king, is a man who was born about 2000 years ago. The significance of his birth is such that modern civilization marks it by dividing time between B.C (before Christ) and A.D (Anno Domini). After working for his farther as a carpenter apprentice until age thirty, He engaged in itinerant preaching for the next three years. Despite not authoring any book, holding any office, not owning a home, never visiting a big city or travelling more than 200 miles from his birthplace, His teachings affected the life of man so profoundly. This was achieved without ever having done anything that was associated with greatness then (Langley, 2014).
He courted controversy wherever he went. From claiming to be the God, to directly violating Jewish law – working on Sabbath, he was viewed by the religious leadership then – and rightly so, as a threat to their powers (Langley, 2014). Not knowing what to do to curtail his growing influence, the religious leaders conspired with the political leadership – the Roman government, to have him executed in the most vile and public manner. This they hoped would end his influence once and for all.
However, when in the third day he rose from the dead, their well laid plans were all laid to waste. With over 500 witnesses of his resurrection, he spent a further 40 days journeying throughout the provinces of Israel before finally ascending to heaven from the City of Jerusalem where they had executed him (Langley, 2014). His teaching influence was such that, there exists an account of how over 3000 people became his followers on one occasion. Over the next 100 years, his teachings influenced and made followers all over the Roman Empire. When Emperor Constantine ascended to the throne of the Roman Empire, Christianity became the official religion courtesy of him being a convert to Christianity.
GOLGOTHA:
This is the name used in the bible to point out the place where Jesus was crucified. Controversy does exist about its true location presently. Some Christians hold that it is within the area presently occupied by the Church of Holy Sepulcher. The word Golgotha is a derivative of the Aramaic word Gulguta which means the place of skulls. History shows that that change to Calvary was as a result of the choice of the word Calvaria in the first translation of the bible into latin – Calvaria means skull.
Many explanations do exists that try to explain why Golgotha was named the place of skull. Some argue that the site which was on a hill or next to a rock had the shape of a human skull (Langley, 2014). Third-century scholars did argue that it referred to the place where Adam’s skull was buried. The bible writers did not see it important to point out the precise location of Golgotha. Instead they the bible offers three specific clues found (John 19: 41-42, Hebrews 13:12, Matthew 27:39).
References
Langley, J. B (2014) Called by Jesus Name: The Connective Value of the Divine Appellate Between the Testaments, Regent University, Ann Arbor.
Yoo, J. W (2013) The Rhetoric of Truth in the Gospel of John “Truth” as Conter-Imperial Reality in the Face of Conflict and Stress, Lutheran School of Theology at Chicago, Ann Arbor.
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In this program you have explored why and how public health leaders should apply sound business principles in public health practice. Yet with their mission of helping the most vulnerable populations, public health organizations cannot be driven by an exclusively “market justice” perspective, in which the principles of self-interest, individualism, and voluntary behavior are given priority.??For this Discussion, you are asked to consider a scenario in which you, as a public health leader, have the opportunity to articulate the “social justice” perspective of public health to an individual who holds a market-justice position and who also has a lot of influence within the community.??As Heifetz and Linsky (2003) observe in one of your readings this week, “Leadership is an improvisational art. You may be guided by an overarching vision, clear values, and a strategic plan, but what you actually do from moment to moment cannot be scripted. You must respond as events unfold” (p. 45). Nevertheless, to help prepare you improvisational opportunities in the future, think through and “script” what you hope you would do and say in the following scenario. Reflect carefully on how best to influence this individual and what might be gained by explaining the social justice perspective that informs public health
Scenario?
You are the Director of the local public health department. You are at a social event one evening with many political leaders and influential community members. You meet one particularly influential person who is an avowed “market justice” advocate (even if he or she doesn’t use that terminology). You introduce yourself. The person looks puzzled and replies, “Public health, huh? You know, I don’t know much about public health. What are you guys all about? What do you do? What are your values?” How would you respond???
ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS:
1. What would you tell this person in order to communicate the social justice perspective and values to this market-justice leader in the community?
2. Identify and discuss 2–3 of the principles you learned from this week’s Learning Resources on influencing others and surviving as a leader that you would want to apply in this scenario.
USE THESE ARTICLES ONLY:
Gostin, L., & Powers, M. (2006). What does social justice require for the public’s health? Public health ethics and policy imperatives. Health Affairs, 25(4), 1053-1060.
This article discusses how social justice and attending to the needs of the disadvantage affect moral aspects of the realm of public health. This article provides examples of the kinds of policies that public health agencies utilizes to manage the field, while shedding light on major public health controversies of the field of study. This article stresses the need for justice and fair disbursement of common advantages and the sharing of common burdens.
Please apply the Application Assignment Rubric when writing the Paper.
I. Paper should demonstrate an excellent understanding of all of the concepts and key points presented in the texts.
II. Paper provides significant detail including multiple relevant examples, evidence from the readings and other sources, and discerning ideas.
III. Paper should be well organized, uses scholarly tone, follows APA style, uses original writing and proper paraphrasing, contains very few or no writing and/or spelling errors, and is fully consistent with doctoral level writing style.
IV. Paper should be mostly consistent with doctoral level writing style.
SAMPLE ANSWER
Communicating the Social Justice Perspective
Justice refers to fairness in decision making processes and the way people are treated. It emphasizes on equal disbursement of burden and advantages. In health care, social justice is a twin moral concept which involves improving health by focusing needs of the most underprivileged. Social justice is the integral part of ensuring that good health is provided to everyone through identification of patterns of disadvantage individuals whose access to health prospects is limited. Therefore, social justice in public health could be elaborated in two aspects; health improvement of the underprivileged population; and fair treatment to the unfortunate communities. These aspects of social justice are paramount and facilitate richer knowledge of public health care (Gostin &Powers, p.1054, 2006).
The main principles of social justice include; Access– To ensure that equitable health care is provided to all people, health infrastructures must be established. These include proper transportation services, good natural environment and enhanced information environment. These are common hindrances of social justice in public health which must be addressed. Equity- refers to equal distribution of health care advantages and disadvantages. Allocation of public health resources should never be based on market influences, political values or societal stature. Health care plans should be devised while paying attention to the underprivileged in the society. Social justice demands that it is each person’s rights to have equitable dissemination of resources especially during extreme health care emergencies; where the disadvantaged risks for unjust is heightened. Participation: this includes all opportunities expandable in concerns for human health. Social justice demands for not only tangible but also long term commitment by public health system at local, State and government in ensuring that health care is provided to all (Gostin &Powers, p. 1058, 2006).
The price of oil has plummeted over the last two months. Your first task is to explain the effect that this is having on the airline industry currently. How are airlines reacting? What adjustments, if any, are they making to their strategies? Second, you should select an airline and discuss the issues that must be assessed in the event of a prolonged period of low fuel prices. You should consider issues such as competitive positioning, fleet renewal schedules and risk assessment, for example. You should refer to the airline’s stakeholders and consider their expectations as well.
You can use charts and graphs as needed.
SAMPLE ANSWER
Fuel price and its effect on airlines
Introduction
The recent attenuation in fuel prices is expected to trigger a shift in various facets across the airline industry; ranging from possible reduction in air fares and higher profit margins for companies, to a reduction in the demand for fuel efficient airplanes as the need to hedge against increasing fuel prices diminishes. Airlines are already reacting to the lower costs of fuel it will only be a matter of time before companies review their strategies to accommodate the new status quo. The low cost of fuel is not only expected to reduce the cost of operation but it could also mean higher levels of competition as customers seek low priced planes. This paper is a discussion on the impact of low fuel costs on the airline industry to establish the reaction from airlines and adjustments that are currently going on in response to these changes.
Discussion
Impact of low fuel prices on the airline industry
The major force behind the high operational costs felt by airlines can be attributed to the cost of fuel. Accordingly, the plummeting fuel prices have the impact of reducing operational costs and this is directly reflected in the company’s level of profitability. Schifter (2015) notes that when the price of an input falls, the likely result is an increased level of profitability as a reduction in expenditure is witnessed. In an industry where the costs of operation have mostly been embellished by the ever increasing fuel costs, this marks a period of relief and a chance to record higher profits from operations (Australia freight transport report, 2015). This means that in the event that airlines do not reduce their fares immediately, they are expected to gain immensely from the elevated profit levels (Choudhury, 2015). Paris (2015) however notes that this may be short-lived because airlines may soon succumb to market pressures to lower air fares.
A major impact that the low fuel prices is having on the airlines is the pressure to reduce air fares in response to the low prices. The pressure from customers as well as governments is very high as fuel prices continue to fall and it is expected that most airlines will soon reduce their fares in order to remain competitive (Paris, 2015). Töytäri et al (2011) notes that in a competitive environment, companies aim at attracting customers through providing the most attractive packages and offering low prices is one of the tactics that companies use to attract customers. Furthermore, customers are likely to be attracted to lower prices and airlines that do not reduce their prices once the trend begins may end up losing their customers. The pressure to revise air fares downwards is therefore high among airline companies and this is expected to reduce prices across the industry.
A projected impact of the low fuel prices is that customers may lose out on the high end tactics that airplanes employ in order to maintain a decent level of clientele. The law of demand and supply portrays that as prices fall, supply also falls. This maybe applicable in the airline industry because lower fares do not lead to significant profits and the enthusiasm to provide services may not be as high as when fares are high (Tucker, 2010). Australia freight transport report (2015) notes that as fuel prices go up, fare prices go up and this means higher profitability for airlines; which in turn invest more in quality services in order to attract more customers. Low fares on the other hand will reduce such proactive strategies because it will be easy to attract customers without the need to invest in extra efforts. Customer comfort is therefore at stake as less may be invested in delivery of quality and unique services. In the event that airline fares may fall as a result of the reduced fuel prices, airline enthusiasm to make sales may be affected. Furthermore, low prices mean that more people can now afford to fly and less effort is needed to attract customers (Choudhury, 2015).
The low fuel prices are considered a major throwback for manufacturers of fuel efficient aircraft like the A320ceos and B-737 Max among others. Such aircrafts were designed to counter the high fuel costs and thus improve profitability for airlines. With fuel being the major line of expenditure for airlines, most airlines had the purchase of fuel efficient aircraft in their future plans in a bid to reduce costs and thus promote profitability (Schifter, 2015). Falling fuel costs however mean that airlines have less urgency to purchase fuel-efficient airlines as the normal aircrafts will still serve cost effectively given the low fuel prices. As noted by Flottau (2015), the main argument for fuel efficient aircraft is to lower operational costs and when this becomes less important as fuel prices fall by almost half, the result is lower demand. This basically means that the demand for fuel efficient airplanes could be negatively affected by the low fuel prices as more aircrafts consider the use of old aircrafts. The low prices mean that airlines can effectively delay the expenditure on new fuel efficient aircrafts and thus invest in other activities aimed at promoting business.
The reduced demand for these aircrafts also pose a threat to manufacturers who have currently accumulated huge orders in that customers may start cancelling their orders. This as noted by Flottau (2015) has caused a panic among manufacturers who may now be forced to speed up their production processes to avoid losses in case airlines decide to cancel orders. However, some experts are confident that this scenario is unlikely and indicate that airlines will only withdraw their plans to purchase their fuel-efficient planes if they are assured that prices will remain low for many years. Boeing’s earnings for example are still expected to continue rising despite low fuel prices and cancellations have been minimal (Rich, 2015). While airlines may choose to use their older aircrafts for longer periods, the demand for fuel efficient aircraft may not be significantly affected because an increased number of people who can afford to fly will still call for the purchase of more aircrafts.
Experts in the airline industry suggest that the reduction in demand for fuel efficient aircraft may not be immediate or very evident at this particular point because airlines may not have adjusted their strategies to respond to the new prices (Rich, 2015). Furthermore, it would be difficult to judge whether the reduction in the number of aircrafts ordered is as a result of the low prices or as a result of saturated orders and backlogs held manufacturers which may force them to regulate orders. In the event that the fuel prices keep falling, a shift in the demand curve for the fuel efficient airplanes is likely to change as shown below.
Q1
Qo
Quantity
Fig 1: Shift in the demand curve for fuel efficient aircrafts, with lesser quantities demanded at Q1.
Flottau (2015) refers to the strategy where airlines secured as many fuel efficient planes as possible as a form of hedging that is quite expensive. This followed an assumption that fuel prices will always be high as demonstrated by the global trends in the recent years; such that airlines sought to purchase the airplanes as a means of life insurance against skyrocketing prices and thus compete effectively. Until recently, the demand for the airplanes including the Boeing and Airbus have been high and order backlogs have been evident as airlines compete to own fuel-efficient planes; with manufacturers of these planes experiencing a boom. With the falling fuel prices, these manufacturers could see a fall in revenues as demand for the fuel efficient airplanes declines (Tucker, 2010). In the face of continued fall in the prices of fuel, reduced demand could see the supply curve shift to the left as indicated below. This denotes a change in the economic conditions which force the supply curve to shift as less quantities are supplied. At a similar price, p, a lower quantity of fuel efficient aircrafts will be supplied if fuel prices keep going down as indicated by q1 (Tucker, 2010).
Price
P
Q1
Q0
Quantity
Fig 2: Shift in the supply curve of fuel efficient manufacturers
Reactions from industry players
The effects of reduced fuel prices on the airline industry are undeniable and it is expected that players from the industries will react to these changes by adopting various strategies. So how are the airlines reacting in the midst of the changes identified? Tucker (2010) notes that, whenever the price of an input goes down, organizations are often left with two choices; to reduce the price of their products, or to add onto their profitability by maintaining current prices. Either way, a company’s actions affect future profitability levels and airlines must therefore make strategic decisions to react to the price changes without affecting the demand for their services.
A majority of airlines are yet to adjust their fares to fully match the low costs of fuel; a factor that has been associated with risk aversion. Airlines are still assessing the economy to determine whether the fuel prices will remain low in the future in order to avoid situations in which they reduce fares only to hike them following changes in the fuel prices (Paris, 2015). However, various airlines including Virgin Atlantic, Emirates and Qantas have already started reducing their fares by a huge magnitude in response to the falling prices and their actions are likely to trigger similar actions throughout the industry as airlines seek to compete with their peers (Paris, 2015; Saleem, 2015).
As indicated in a discussion above, the urgency for fuel efficient airplanes is expected to reduce if fuel prices keep falling and this may be reflected by changes in company strategies. Airlines are now considering keeping their older aircraft models as opposed to purchasing fuel-efficient airplanes. It is apparent that companies are increasingly becoming comfortable with their older models and thus considering the diversion of funds intended for the purchase of fuel-efficient planes. The need for bank facilities to purchase such planes may also be suspended by such companies if fuel prices continue to fall.
Case study of British Airlines
British Airways (BA) remains one of the most influential airlines in the world and its reaction to the low fuel prices is an important industry pointer and could possibly represent the industry’s reaction. British Airways is responding slowly to the changes in fuel prices and little has been done in terms of bringing down air fares (Paris, 2015). This can be attributed to the volatile nature of fuel prices which is often unpredictable. British Airways may be reluctant on reducing air fares because there is a probability that price adjustments made may need to be revised once again when there is another change in the market. In addition, fuel prices cannot be directly translated into lower fares because the airline purchases fuel long in advance and hence the reduction in current prices cannot automatically translated into lower prices. The pressure is however high as other airlines start reducing their fares. The likelihood therefore is that British Airways may end up lowering its prices to match its peers in order to retain its market.
While lowering air fares would seem the obvious reaction by airlines following the low fuel prices, the airline should not be quick to lower their fares because the volatility of the economy may not sustain the prices for a long period. In essence, revising the company’s strategy and budget based on the current low prices may not be a valid action because there is no certainty that the prices will remain low. It is however apparent that the company must effectively study the trends in the economy and strategies that are being adopted by other airlines in order to compete effectively (Heerkens, 2004).
The low prices of fuel present a change in the business environment for British Airways and different airlines may respond in their own unique way. The most likely effect of low fuel prices would be lower fares as airlines respond to market pressures to reduce prices. BA must engage competitive positioning tactics that will ensure that despite the changes adopted by other companies in response to the low fuel prices, the company still retains its market share through the season. It is notable that due to the low fare prices, clients have a variety of airlines to choose from and it is only through creating attractive features and creating value for clients that BA will prevent the airline’s customer from going for lower prices elsewhere (Töytäri et al, 2011). In the event of a prolonged period of low fuel prices, British Airways needs to weigh the possibility of reducing air fares according to the industry standards and thus attain a competitive position in the market. Töytäri et al (2011) suggests that the quality of service must be top-notch for any company that seeks to maintain competitive positioning. He indicates that customers are not only attracted to low prices but the nature and quality of services received could make them prefer a highly priced product.
British Airways may need to re-evaluate its fleet renewal schedules as it adjusts to current economic conditions. British Airways which is known for a well maintained fleet and affinity for low-cost airplanes may use this opportunity as a chance to invest in other projects as opposed to replacing its current airplanes with the fuel efficient planes. It is notable that one of the main focus for the airline was to replace its older models with fuel efficient ones in order to promote profitability over time. The lower prices however may call for a revision of the company’s fleet renewal strategy to reduce the need for fuel efficient airplanes.
As British Airways makes strategy changes following the low fuel prices, it is imperative that the management takes into consideration the need for risk assessment (Yilmaz, 2015). Flottau (2015), notes that, as fuel prices fall, there is a likelihood of various business risks including the possibility of rising prices in the future. According to Rich (2015), fuel prices are highly volatile and an airline must be extremely careful to avoid making decisions that may place it on the wrong side of fuel prices in the future. In addition, extremely low prices may push air fares too low for the companies to make adequate profits; especially where the company has invested highly in other systems for quality assurance. Companies which have not invested highly on class and quality measures including excellent customer care, social amenities for customers and in-flight services may find it easier to drop their prices in response to low fuel prices because this is the major aspect of their expenditure. World class airlines like BA however may have a hard time matching such prices because their expenditure is beyond fuel prices only. This means that the company may end up losing its customers to other airlines and this risk must therefore be averted through risk assessment which will lead to the adoption of effective strategies. In response to such a risk, BA may invest in continued dedication to excellent customer service and advertise the airline as an airline of choice for customers who choose comfort.
Conclusion
The low fuel costs dictate a change in various aspects of the airline industry. This discussion establishes that as the prices of fuel reduce, airlines are expected to experience pressure from customers to reduce air fares; which calls for airlines to react through well designed adjustments to their strategies. In the event of continued fall in prices, the probability of a fall in demand for fuel-efficient aircraft is apparent as the urgency to save on fuel experienced during high prices diminishes. Companies like British Airways must adapt effective strategies that promise to meet the needs of customers for lower prices while maintaining decent profitability. Risk assessment is highly necessary to assure continued profitability in the face of reducing fuel prices.
Reference List
Australia freight transport report 2015, Business Monitor International, London. Retrieved from
Töytäri, P. et al 2011, Bridging the theory to application gap in value-based selling.The Journal of Business & Industrial Marketing,Vol 26, Issue 7, pp. 493-502. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/08858621111162299
Yilmaz 2014, The management strategies for resource dependency risk in aviation business,International Review of Management and Business Research, Vol 3, Issue 3, pp. 1551-1563. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1618165539?accountid=45049
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Assignment due Sunday Feb 15, 2015 one page
To complete the following assignment, go to this week’s Assignment link in the left navigation.
1. Argument Outline
Please choose one of the following videos:
o Peter Singer’s Ethics
o Slavoj Zizek in Examined Life
o Martin Luther King Jr. on NBC’s Meet the Press in 1965
o Alan Keyes v. Barack Obama debate on death penalty
For this assignment, you will outline at least one of the arguments that you believe are made in the video you selected. In your outline:
o Identify the issue that is addressed and the conclusion that is presented.
o Identify the premises that are given in support of that conclusion.
o Explain whether or not you think the argument is convincing by presenting your reasons for this position. If you do not have evidence for your position, you should consult scholarly materials that relate to the position you present.
Here is an example of an outline about an argument from the Monty Python Argument Clinic video. Utilize the same structure found in the example, but be sure to provide enough detail to satisfactorily complete all aspects of the prompt.
There is no minimum word count, but you must include a title page and reference page in APA style. The only required resource for this assignment is the multimedia source you chose to analyze. This should be the source that you primarily use to complete the assignment. Secondary sources are welcome but not necessary, and they should not be used in place of the argument piece you selected.
SAMPLE ANSWER
Argument Outline
Peter Singer’s Ethics
The issue that is being addressed in this argument is the role that is currently being played by the affluent in society towards the alleviation of the suffering of the poor in society. The proponent of this school of thought is of the opinion that the loss or expense incurred wealthy in society is nothing compared to the gain that will be realized by the austere who will be on the receiving end of this help.
Peter Singer, the Australian Philosopher published what he termed as ‘Practical Ethics’ in 1993. This publication was basically made with the sole aim of convincing the affluent in society to give towards charitable causes. His principles are based on the doing of the greater good through minimizing pain and in the process alleviating pleasure (Singer, 1972).
The Premises that the author takes are dependent on the relative positions of the two parties.
The first premise he puts forward is the fact that everyone who has even abit of surplus is morally destitute. This is because anything extra that they have could be used to improve the welfare of the poor.
Another premise that he forwards is that all suffering experienced by each and every organism is the same and there is no form of suffering that is more special than the other. This means that animal suffering is just as grave as that experienced by humans (Singer, 1974).
I agree only partially with the conclusion. The reason why this is partial is the fact that it is indeed morally upright to help out the less fortunate. I however disagree with it too in that the strict application of this is bound to create laziness and also discourage hard work which leads to wealth.
References
Singer, P. (1972). Famine, affluence, and morality. Philosophy & Public Affairs, 229-243.
It is to be analytical rather than descriptive. It should reflect a good understanding of the aid-growth theories and empirical methodologies
It is a research intensive exercise and involves identifying and discussing the relevant papers in the literature.
Articles like Burnside and Dollar(2000), Levine and Roodman (2003) should be used along side other journals and papers
SAMPLE ANSWER
Introduction
In our context today, many argue that financial developments measured in the eyes of a monetary indicator and credits are imperative in economic growth. These allegations have led economist to find a balance in the pursuit of financial liberalization for countries to grow faster. In as much as it may be empirically proven that there is a strong connection between growth and finance, there is no proper base that ascertains that the two antecedents spur growth. It is against this background that this paper seeks to explicitly analyze the finance-growth relationship through an empirical approach that incorporates other methods (Burnside, & Dollar, 2000).
Burnside and Dollar in their attempt to find out the impact of aid on the economy discovered that aid would only be effective in an economy that has a sound fiscal, trade and monetary policies. This has caused many donors to only focus their aid on good economic policies (Burnside, & Dollar, 2000). This dissertation aims to analyze the hypothesis behind aid as the most efficient agent in the growth of an economy. The paper will also address the impact that foreign aid intrigues in the economic growth of a country.
The Neo- Classical Model of Exogenous Growth
This approach introduces the components involved in sustaining a positive growth rate of a country per capita over a period. According to Burnside and Dollar, continual improvements in technological knowledge that in turn affects the forms of new goods, markets and processes are critical to sustaining growth. On the other hand, they allege that in the event that a country lacks technological progress, the fruits are most likely to decrease the impact of economic growth. In his approach, he describes the production function through a theory below;
Y-F {K} (Burnside, & Dollar, 2000).
In this theory, he explains that K is the capital stock while Y determines the aggregate stock that is determined only by a given state. This also entails a range of available approaches under different capital. K is a cumulative indicator that identifies the various capital goods and includes human, as well as physical capital (Burnside, & Dollar, 2004). This model puts into assumption the aspects of capital and labour as fully employed. The central purpose of the cumulative production function is that it diminishes returns to the accumulation of capital.
In order to ascertain that the rate of capital stock increases in a country in a given period, the Solow and Swan theory is incorporated. This approach assumes that people save a stable fraction S of their total gross income Y. However, this approach puts into assumption that taxes are not included in order to identify the national income and output (Burnside, & Dollar, 2004). A depreciated level of capital stock is connoted as δ. The rate at which capital accumulates is Sy, while the rate of the old capital that wears out is QK. The rate of the net increase of capital inclusive of the net investment is;
K=SF (K)-δK (Burnside, & Dollar, 2004).
According to this theory, savings and investments can only be identical when taxes and government expenditures, and international trade are excluded since they both represent the flow of income spent on investments goods rather than on consumed goods.
However, in the absence of a growth in technology and technological changes within a nation, the returns are more likely to diminish, this affecting the state of an economic growth (İnce, 2011). According to this author, boosting savings with the objective of increasing growth is considered void since an increase in s will only raise the rate of capital accumulation temporarily and will not affect the growth rate of a country (Batraga, Brasliņa, & Viksne, 2014). When S is however increased, the levels of output and capital are likely to increase thus changing the savings schedule to an increase.
Endogenous Growth Models
The use of endogenous growth model is a main alternative to the neoclassical growth approach. This model slightly varies from the neoclassical method of growth since it includes a couple of inputs such as technology, physical capital, human capital, social capital, intermediate goods, organizational capital and institutional design (Batraga . et al 2014). The increase of output according to this model changes with the other mentioned inputs, thus making it difficult to find stability in the linear relationship between investment and growth.
The neoclassical approach depicts that aid fills the financial gap and allows for greater investment and growth opportunities in a country. However, this assumption only finds base if the investment is liquidated and constrained and the incentives that should be invested are favourable (Boreham, 2008). In a nutshell, then the incentives to invest are low, the investments level also fall low. Aid, on the other hand, may also cause a negative effect on investment incentives, a factor that could cause a country to seek for more aid in the future. It is, therefore, imperative to consider the fact that aid can finance consumption rather than investment (Abdessatar, & Rachida, 2013). Burnside and Dollars allegation that aid increases growth under a good policy is substantial and does not ascertain if aid can lead to investments.
Theory of Aid and Growth
The standard model that has been in use for years now to justify aid is that of two-gap model that is attributed to Chenery and Stout. In this approach, the first gap is inferred to as that between the investment amounts required to achieve a growth rate and the available savings (Rajan, & Subramanian, 2008). The second gap is that which describes the import requirements that are needed for a given level of production, inclusive of the foreign exchange earnings. In this approach, economic growth is tied to the investments as shared in the GDP. This growth is adjusted to factors that reveal the state of the investment, whether high or low (Hansen, & Tarp, 2001). The amount of investments, therefore, sums the domestic savings and foreign aid of a country.
In summary, Burnside and Dollar, in their pursuit to find the balance in the relationship between foreign aid, economy and growth found that aid has a positive impact on growth and development of a country. This can only be possible is such a country has a good fiscal, trade and monetary policy and has few pressures on poor policies (Burnside & Dollar, 2000). These factors can be achieved when empirical ideologies that are growth oriented are introduced.
Conclusion
This dissertation focused on Burnside and Dollar (2000) ideologies that viewed the relationship between aid and GPA per capita of a country. In as much the results have faced a wide debate from empirical researches; aid has a significant negative impact on a countries GDP per capita growth (Gupta, 2004). However, when a good policy environment is cultivated, aid has a significant impact on the economy of a country. It is important that donors understand and create frameworks that provide them with better tools to improve developmental agendas in different countries (Easterly, Ross, & Roodman, 2003).
Works Cited.
Abdessatar, A., & Rachida, B. J. (2013). Institutional Quality and Financial Stress: Experience From Emerging Country. Studies In Business & Economics, 8(3), 5-20.
Batraga, A., Brasliņa, L., & Viksne, K. (2014). Identification of Innovation Ideas in Its Development Process. Management of Organizations: Systematic Research, (70), 23-40. https://www.doi:10.7220/MOSR.1392-1142.2014.70.2
Boreham, G. F. (2008). The Financial Markets Approach to Economic Development in LDCs. Service Industries Journal, 6(1), 22-41.
Burnside, C., & Dollar, D. (2000). Aid, policies, and growth. The American Economic Review, 90 (4), 847-868.
Burnside, C., & Dollar, D. (2004). Aid, Policies, and Growth: Reply. American Economic Review, 94(3), 781-784.
Easterly, W., Ross, L., & Roodman, D. (2003). New data new doubts: A comment on burnside and dollar’s “aid, policies, and growth” (2000). National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper Series,
Gupta, K. L. (2004). Foreign capital and domestic savings: A test of Haavelmo’s hypothesis with cross-country data: A comment. Review of Economics & Statistics, 52(2), 214-216.
Hansen, H., & Tarp, F. (2001). Aid and growth regressions. Journal of Development Economics, 64 (2), 547-570. doi:DOI: 10.1016/S0304-3878(00)00150-4
İnce, M. (2011). Financial Liberalization, Financial Development and Economic Growth: An Emprical Analysis for Turkey. Journal of Yasar University, 6(23), 3782-3793.
Rajan, R. G., & Subramanian, A. (2008; 2008). Aid and growth: What does the cross-country evidence really show? Review of Economics and Statistics, 90 (4), 643-665.
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explain with the reference to decided cases, what a person must do to establish negligence. expand on the test which may be applied and discuss what remedies and defenses are available. how does negligence relate to professional liability?
SAMPLE ANSWER
Introduction
Negligence is a tort that refers to body or a number of rights and obligations that are remedied by courts through civil proceedings that grants the victims some compensation for any harm suffered as a result of wrongly acts committed against them. There are several elements that must be present for an action of tort to be successful in a court of law.
The Duty of Care
For an action of the tort of negligence to be successful, the duty of care must exist. For example in the case of Haynes v Harwood where the plaintiff, who was a police officer risked his life and sustained injuries when he ran after some horses in a bid to bring them under control after they were left unattended. The owners of the horses owed a duty of to other road users who may have been harmed by the horses if they were left unattended. The concern is mostly what an average ordinary person would do in case of such situation.
Breach of the duty of Care
The duty of care owed to the third parties must have been breached for an action of negligence to succeed in a court of law as in the case of Brandon v Osborne Garrett & Company.
Causation
The breach that occurred must have caused some injury or damage to the victim.
Damage or Injury
Damage or injury must have occurred and it’s not restricted to physical body harm only it also refers to monetary loss, emotional stress or even some embarrassment caused.
These are the duty of care must exist to the plaintiff, the duty of care must have been breached, there must be causation and damage or injury.
The remedies available to the tort of negligence include damages and injunction. Damages can be classified under nominal damages where a tort has been committed but there no losses or harm caused to the victim. The others are general, special damages or aggravated damages.
The defences available to an action of tort are vicarious liability, contributory negligence or volenti Non fit injuria. In the case of Haynes v Harwood, the defendants pleaded that the actions of the police officer amounted to voluntary assumption of risks hence the defendants were not liable. But the court established that the defendants were actually liable and the victim was acted in the best interest of the public in a manner in which any reasonable man would have acted the same way. The test for the tort of negligence is that for a duty of care to exist, then the concern is what a prudent person or an ordinary person would do when faced with a similar situation. Professionals owe a duty of care to their clients as per the standards of an average professional in the ordinary cause of duty.
Ethical Implications of the Public Health Change Model
Ethical Implications of the Public Health Change Model
Order Instructions:
ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS:
1. Identify and discuss the ethical implications or concerns of team’s public health change model for childhood obesity. Assess and discuss this from each of these levels:
• Individual
• Organizational/group/institutional
• Community
2. Summarize the basic ethical principles and theories that are applicable here.
3. Identify the skills and resources a leader would need to bring about the proposed changes in your model in an ethical way.
USE THESE ARTICLES ONLY:
1.Kersh R, Stroup DF, Taylor WC. Childhood obesity: a framework for policy approaches and ethical considerations. Prev Chronic Dis 2011:8(5):A93. http://www.cdc.gov/pcd/issues/2011/sep/10_0273.htm. Accessed [date].
2.Crawford PB, Gosliner W, Kayman H. The ethical basis for promoting nutritional health in public schools in the United States. Prev Chronic Dis 2011;8(5):A98. http://www.cdc.gov/pcd/issues/2011/sep/10_0283.htm.
Volume 8: No. 5, September 2011
SPECIAL TOPIC
Childhood Obesity: A Framework for Policy Approaches and Ethical Considerations
TABLE OF CONTENTS
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Abstract
Introduction
Competing Policy Solutions
A Framework for Ethical Issues
Examples of Application of the Framework
Discussion
Acknowledgments
Author Information
References
Rogan Kersh, PhD; Donna F. Stroup, PhD, MSc; Wendell C. Taylor, PhD, MPH
Suggested citation for this article: Kersh R, Stroup DF, Taylor WC. Childhood obesity: a framework for policy approaches and ethical considerations. Prev Chronic Dis 2011:8(5):A93. http://www.cdc.gov/pcd/issues/2011/sep/10_0273.htm. Accessed [date].
PEER REVIEWED
Abstract
Although obesity rates among US children have increased during the past 3 decades, effective public policies have been limited, and the quest for workable solutions raises ethical questions. To address these concerns, in 2010, the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation convened an expert panel to consider approaches to the ethics problems related to interventions for childhood obesity. On the basis of recommendations from the expert panel, we propose frameworks for policy approaches and ethical aspects of interventions and evaluation. We present these frameworks in the context of other papers in this collection and make recommendations for public health practice.
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Introduction
Childhood obesity in the United States presents major health challenges, but neither the medical industry, public health advocates, nor policy makers have identified effective ways of reversing increasing rates of obesity among youth. Policy debates often focus on low energy expenditure attributable to increasingly inactive lifestyles. However, efforts to increase physical activity among youth have limited benefits without simultaneous attention to decreasing caloric consumption. A study among middle-school children reported that risk of obesity increased by 60% for every additional sugar-sweetened beverage consumed per day, regardless of levels of exercise (1).
Although obesity is linked to unhealthy diet and insufficient physical activity, prevention efforts and responsibility for the problem remain controversial. Whose job is it to ensure that children have a healthy life: parents and caregivers, schools, communities, the state? Children may be particularly vulnerable to harm because of their limited ability to make choices, dependence on adults for food and other goods, and susceptibility to marketing.
The quest for solutions raises many ethical questions explored in this collection. Do interventions involving children raise concerns different from those for adults? Does public policy attention to childhood obesity exacerbate body-weight concerns that can fuel stigma and potentially cause bulimia and anorexia? In situations where multiple, simultaneous interventions on different levels are needed, how might testing a single intervention communicate misleading results about the efficacy of achieving sustainable reform?
In this commentary, we summarize recommendations of the expert panel. First, we present a policy framework for interventions for childhood obesity. Second, we develop a framework for addressing ethical issues. Third, we review 3 policy approaches to support this framework. Finally, we discuss the application of these frameworks for existing and planned interventions.
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Competing Policy Solutions
One perspective in US political discussions about childhood obesity emphasizes personal responsibility, holding that food consumption is an individual matter and that parents, and eventually adolescents themselves, are best situated to make consumption decisions (2,3). This view informs policy actions that emphasize improved access to volitional physical activity and healthy diets (4).
As concern over childhood obesity has increased, a competing policy framework has gained support. In an obesogenic environment, children may find their food choices influenced by availability, price, and marketing of high-fat, low-nutrient processed foods. Messages targeting youth start from an early age wherever they congregate, including at school (5). In this environmental view of childhood obesity, public officials have a responsibility to intervene through policies such as the following:
•Controlling the conditions of sale (eg, limiting what schools can offer).
•Restricting advertising of high-fat, low-nutrient foods that targets young children or using other alternatives to increase awareness of what they are eating (eg, requiring calorie labels on menus).
•Subsidizing healthier alternatives (eg, fruits and vegetables) that have much higher per-calorie costs than do most other foods, many of which are or include ingredients (eg, corn syrup and sugar) that are subsidized under US farm policies.
•Restricting or banning certain ingredients (eg, trans fats).
Policy initiatives to control availability of competitive foods have been introduced at all levels of government. One congressional bill expands the list of foods of minimal nutritional value forbidden for sale in school cafeterias and on campus (6). An example at the state level is Connecticut’s Healthy Food Certification program, which provides monetary incentives to school districts that choose to implement state nutrition standards for all foods sold to students outside reimbursable school meals (7). The effort to assess and advance policy changes as discussed in this collection raises legitimate ethical concerns, to which we now turn.
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A Framework for Ethical Issues
Box. Characteristics of State Interventions for Childhood Obesity Under the Stewardship Model
Public health programs should 1.Attempt to reduce risks for obesity that populations might impose on each other.
2.Reduce causes of obesity through legislation or regulation that creates environmental conditions that sustain good health (eg, access to healthy foods and opportunities to be physically active).
3.Emphasize attention to the health of children and other vulnerable populations (eg, those with disabilities).
4.Promote health not only by providing information but also with programs that help populations maintain exercise and healthy diets.
5.Make leading a healthy life easy.
6.Ensure that populations have access to services.
7.Strive for justice in health.
Public health programs should not
1.Coerce populations into leading healthy lives.
2.Develop and introduce interventions without the consent or participation of those affected.
3.Implement interventions that are intrusive or conflict with personal or community values.
Adapted from: Nuffield Council on Bioethics (9).
One ethical concern raised by these policy interventions is the association between individual autonomy and state authority. The libertarian perspective limits the authority of the state to ensure individual freedom, whereas utilitarian and social-contract approaches allow individual interests to be secondary to increases in overall welfare. One theory for approaching this ethical concern is provided by John Stuart Mill’s harm principle: state intervention is justified when a person’s actions affect others (8). This principle recognizes the responsibility of the state to protect vulnerable populations from harming their own (or others’) health. This harm principle can be applied to interventions for childhood obesity through a stewardship model (9), which argues that the state is a steward to people and communities (Box). A reasonable application of this stewardship role is the constitutional principle of police and public health authority explored by Harris and Graff in this collection (5).
The articles in this collection explore ethical questions about the role of the state or other societal structures in stewardship. For example, as the state attempts to protect school children by measuring and reporting body mass index (BMI), how can concerns about privacy and stigmatization be addressed (10)? Other questions concern the extent to which parents and other community members are responsible for providing children a safe environment and whether childhood obesity can be considered a child protection problem (similar to child abuse) needing societal intervention (11). Governments must prevent their actions from affecting certain communities disproportionately; for example, do taxes on sodas unjustly punish persons of lower socioeconomic levels (12)? Are state-provided interventions accessible to children with special health care needs (13)? How can we address the stigma associated with the use of the term “obese” (14)? Although food industry officials argue that marketing cannot force consumers to do anything, marketing continues to have a substantial impact. What should be the role of media literacy and restrictions on use of cartoon characters, celebrities, or health claims (5)? What can we learn from the restrictions on tobacco marketing (12)?
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Examples of Application of the Framework
We present 3 examples of policy interventions for childhood obesity to illustrate the application of these frameworks in light of the ethical issues explored in this collection.
Menu calorie labeling
In 2008, no place in the United States required restaurants to post calorie labels. Two years later, dozens of jurisdictions and the United States itself have enacted menu-labeling laws (5). However, recent studies report that calorie information may not be a determining consideration in food choices; accessibility, taste, habit, perception, peer influence, and parental modeling also influence children’s food choices (11). Thus, menu calorie labeling alone may not be effective, and communities considering this policy intervention would be well advised to consider the role of personal autonomy in implementing such interventions.
Soft drink tax
Forty states and many cities levy taxes on low-nutrition foods (12). As for taxes to decrease cigarette consumption, controlled experiments have shown that manipulations of price can yield changes in consumption (15). The number of jurisdictions with soda taxes has declined in recent years concurrent with lobbying efforts by the beverage industry, but taxes have reduced consumption and increased revenue for other health-related programs (16). Just as for menu calorie labeling, the health benefits of a soda tax as a stand-alone intervention are less clear (17).
Interventions in schools
The United States has built a public education system on the principle that no child should be denied the right to an education on the basis of socioeconomics or other challenges, yet when a child becomes obese, that child struggles to achieve academic success because of stigma, depression or anxiety, or absenteeism (18). Resources could be a factor in a school’s reliance on unregulated foods to generate revenue (19). The ethical responsibility of schools to limit soft drink sales and provide healthy meals and opportunities for physical activity and to combat the other adverse consequences of childhood obesity affecting education (20) must also be considered.
The National School Lunch Program now serves more than 30 million students (approximately 60% of attendees) daily. Although students in this program consume more milk, fruits, and vegetables and have lower intakes of sweetened beverages and candy than other students, they also consume more sodium, fat and saturated fat, and calories (21). Moreover, US school districts often contract with private beverage and food companies to sell less nutritious “competitive foods” in cafeterias and vending machines. Thus, again, a stand-alone intervention may be ineffective, and the policy interventions planned for school settings must consider these competing forces.
The stewardship role of the state gives special attention to disadvantaged populations. Approximately 13% of children in the United States have a disability or chronic condition, and 6.4 million children with disabilities are enrolled in public education. Children with functional limitations and learning disabilities are more than twice as likely to be obese as other children, and children from families with low socioeconomic status are at higher risk for obesity (22). Parents, schools, health care settings, and communities all have a role in ensuring that the risk for obesity among children with special needs is no greater than for other children (13).
Ethical review of research protocols typically emphasizes informed consent and confidentiality, the standard in most research regarding health-policy interventions for human behavior. In their role as policy makers, school administrators may implement activities affecting children. Although schools are not a research setting, concern may be raised about the extent to which families are truly informed about the activities, a matter presumably heightened by any layer of removal (eg, child to parent or administrator) from the actual participant. The question of reporting BMI among school children illustrates this problem (10). School interventions that actively involve families are more likely to be effective (11) than stand-alone interventions in schools.
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Discussion
Media reports may exacerbate eating disorders and other unhealthy weight-loss practices. Reformers eager to spread a healthy message (eg, about the dangers of smoking, drinking, or drug use) have traditionally demonized both the purveyors of undesirable substances and those who practice the risky behavior, often targeting members of comparatively dispossessed communities (23). Unlike tobacco or drugs, food is necessary for life, so the attention to reducing stigma is a necessary component of any intervention (14).
This collection of papers supports the claim that the nature of evaluation research — testing a single intervention, often during the formative stage of implementation — may mislead policy makers and the public about the efficacy of achieving sustainable reform. If one focuses on a single isolated intervention and holds other factors constant (as if that were possible), the policy change may appear to be ineffective. When evaluations of individual policies (eg, menu labels, soft drink taxes, and removal of competitive foods in schools) fall short of anticipated benefits, does this imply that we are promoting the wrong policies or that no single intervention is likely to be successful in reversing the rates of childhood obesity? Or is our evaluation framework insufficient for this situation? A single type of medical treatment often fails to address a health problem, and multiple, simultaneous interventions are often preferable. A similar approach may be the most promising means of systematically addressing childhood obesity.
The advancement and impact of policy evaluations of simultaneous interventions face 2 challenges. First, scholars should find ways to evaluate broad interventions in scientifically sound ways and must attend to collective concerns more rigorously. Evidence-based approaches (those informed by the best available scientific evidence and reflecting community preferences and feasibility) are more likely to be effective at addressing causes of childhood obesity, interventions, and policies that may work to confront those causes, in a manner acceptable to the community affected (24). Second, the separation of powers in the US legislative system, with its multiple veto points, combined with dedicated interest-group resistance to any attempts to regulate food or beverage policies, makes approval of passing even a single program difficult, much less a multifaceted, coordinated national approach to childhood obesity.
Given the urgency of the childhood obesity problem and the difficulty of personal-responsibility approaches (25), the public policy arena is the most promising response. Yet, in the United States, the time-honored policy-making practices of incrementalism are proving inadequate for the present crisis (26). For public policy to enable a response, barriers to simultaneous interventions, a new view of the role of the state, and attention to the ethical issues raised in this collection of articles will be needed.
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Acknowledgments
This article highlights ideas generated and conclusions reached at the Symposium on Ethical Issues in Interventions for Childhood Obesity, sponsored by the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation and Data for Solutions, Inc. The authors thank C. Kay Smith, MEd, who edited the papers in this Special Topic collection.
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Author Information
Corresponding Author: Donna F. Stroup, PhD, MSc, Data for Solutions, Inc, PO Box 894, Decatur, GA 30031-0894. Telephone: 404-218-0841. E-mail: donnafstroup@dataforsolutions.com.
Author Affiliations: Rogan Kersh, New York University Wagner School, New York, New York; Wendell C. Taylor, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, School of Public Health, Houston, Texas.
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References
1.Ludwig DS, Peterson KE, Gortmaker SL. Relation between consumption of sugar-sweetened drinks and childhood obesity: a prospective, observational analysis. Lancet 2001;357(9255):505-8
2.Kersh T, Elbel B. Childhood obesity: public health impact and policy responses. In: Bagchi D, editor. Global view on childhood obesity: current status, consequences and prevention. Maryland Heights (MO): Elsevier Publishing; 2010.
4.Brownell KD, Kersh R, Ludwig DS, Post RC, Puhl RM, Schwartz MB, Willett WC. Personal responsibility and obesity: a constructive approach to a controversial issue. Health Aff (Millwood) 2010;29(3):379-87.
5.Harris JL, Graff SK. Protecting children from harmful food marketing: options for local government to make a difference. Prev Chronic Dis 2011;8(5):A92. http://www.cdc.gov/pcd/issues/2011/sep/10_0272.htm.
6.Child Nutrition Promotion and School Lunch Protection Act of 2009, S 934, 111th Cong, 1st Sess (2009) (cf HR 1324, same title).
7.Long MW, Henderson KE, Schwartz MB. Evaluating the impact of a Connecticut program to reduce availability of unhealthy competitive food in schools. J Sch Health 2010;80(10):478-86.
8.Mill JS. On liberty. Oxford (GB): Oxford University Press; 1859. p. 21-22.
10.Phillips MM, Ryan K, Raczynski JM. Public policy versus individual rights in childhood obesity interventions: perspectives from the Arkansas experience with Act 1220 of 2003. Prev Chronic Dis 2011;8(5):A96. http://www.cdc.gov/pcd/issues/2011/sep/10_0286.htm.
13. Minihan P, Must A, Andrewson B, Popper B. Children with special health care needs: acknowledging the dilemma of difference in policy responses to obesity. Prev Chronic Dis 2011;8(5):A95. http://www.cdc.gov/pcd/issues/2011/sep/10_0285.htm.
15. French SA, Story M, Jeffery RW, Snyder P, Eisenberg M, Sidebottom A, Murray D. Pricing strategy to promote fruit and vegetable purchase in high school cafeterias. J Am Diet Assoc 1997;97(9):1008-10.
16. Brownell KD, Farley T, Willett WC, Popkin BM, Chaloupka FJ, Thompson JW, Ludwig DS. The public health and economic benefits of taxing sugar-sweetened beverages. N Engl J Med 2009;361(16):1599-605.
17. Powell LM, Chriqui J, Chaloupka FJ. Associations between state-level soda taxes and adolescent body mass index. J Adolesc Health 2009;45(3 Suppl):S57-63.
18. Kearny CA. School absenteeism and school refusal behavior in youth: a contemporary review. Clin Psychol Rev 2008;28(3):451-71.
19. O’Malley PM, Johnston LD, Delva J, Bachman JG, Schulenberg JE. Variation in obesity among American secondary school students by school and school characteristics. Am J Prev Med 2007;33(4 Suppl):S187-94.
20. Crawford PB, Gosliner W, Kayman H. The ethical basis for promoting nutritional health in public schools in the United States. Prev Chronic Dis 2011;8(5):A98. http://www.cdc.gov/pcd/issues/2011/sep/10_0283.htm.
22. Vieweg VR, Johnston CH, Lanier JO, Fernandez A, Pandurangi AK. Correlation between high risk obesity groups and low socioeconomic status in children. South Med J 2007;100(1):8-13.
23. Pomeranz JL. A historical analysis of public health, the law, and stigmatized social groups: the need for both obesity and weight bias legislation. Obesity (Silver Spring) 2008;16(Suppl 2):S93-103.
24. Fielding JE, Briss PA. Promoting evidence-based public health policy: can we have better evidence and more action? Health Aff (Millwood) 2006;25(4):969-78.
25. Blacksher E. Children’s health inequalities: ethical and political challenges to seeking social justice. Hastings Cent Rep 2008;38(4):28-35.
26. Kumanyika SJ. A question of competing rights, priorities, and principles: a postscript to the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation Symposium on the Ethics of Childhood Obesity Policy. Prev Chronic Dis 2011;8(5):A97. http://www.cdc.gov/pcd/issues/2011/sep/10_0289.htm.
SAMPLE ANSWER
Ethical Implications of the Public Health Change Model
Ethical implications or concerns
Individual level: the ethical implications/concerns of team’s public health change model for childhood obesity from the individual level are that people should not be coerced by public health programs into healthy lives. Kersh, Stroup and Taylor (2011) stated that a major ethical concern brought about by policy interventions entails the association between the authority of the state and an individual’s autonomy. The other concern is that interventions should not be developed and introduced without the involvement or consent of the individuals who are affected by those particular interventions (Kersh, Stroup & Taylor, 2011). As states try to protect school kids by measuring as well as reporting their body mass index, concerns regarding stigmatization and confidentiality should be addressed appropriately.
Organizational/group/institutional level: governments need to make sure that their actions do not affect people of particular communities disproportionately. Taxes on soft drinks, for instance, should not unfairly punish people from lower socio-economic status. Interventions provided by the states should be accessible to kids who have special healthcare needs (Kersh, Stroup & Taylor, 2011).
Community level: there are concerns regarding the extent to which parents along with other members of the community are accountable for offering kids an environment that is safe. Another concern is that, should childhood obesity be regarded as a child protection issue – just like child abuse – that warrants societal intervention? There is also the concern with regard to how the stigma linked to the usage of the word obese can be addressed in the communities. Moreover, there is concern regarding the role of media literacy as well as restrictions on the usage of celebrities, cartoon characters, or health claims considering that marketing activities carried out by the food industry have a great impact (Kersh, Stroup & Taylor, 2011).
Applicable basic ethical principles and theories
Autonomy: kids do not have autonomy both at school and at home considering that they lack the experience as well as knowledge necessary to select foods basing on the nutritional quality. Therefore, parents need to offer foodstuffs from which their children could choose reasonably. At school, school administrators should provide foodstuffs from which the school children can pick but limiting the foods to only those which offer nutritional benefit and not harm (Crawford, Gosliner & Kayman, 2011).
Justice: this implies that everyone has to be treated in a fair manner. One of the fundraising techniques used by schools is allowing food marketers to market beverages and foods on school ground. Crawford, Gosliner and Kayman (2011) pointed out that recurrent exposure to such marketing in schools in areas of low income in which kids are at a higher risk is actually in disagreement with social justice and fairness.
Nonmaleficence: any intervention must not bring harm, for instance offering foods that are nutritional. Offering easy access to foods of low nutritional quality has to be interpreted as causing harm. According to Crawford, Gosliner and Kayman (2011), the current situation whereby schools along with their suppliers profit from selling to school kids foods that are not healthy could be masked by the efforts made in schools to teach children how to avoid choosing foods which are less healthy that are being offered.
Skills and resources needed by a leader
The skills and resources that a leader would need in order to bring about the proposed changes in the model in an ethical way include the ability to advocate for health-policy interventions that ensure all populations have adequate access to services. The leader should also endeavor for justice and fairness in health; she should underscore attention to the children’s health as well as the health of other populations that are vulnerable such as disabled persons (Kersh, Stroup & Taylor, 2011). The leader needs to have the ability of developing programs which make living a healthy life simple. They should also be able to promote health through giving information and coming up with interventions which assist populations in maintaining healthy diets and exercise (Kersh, Stroup & Taylor, 2011). The resources needed include financial resources as well as personnel.
References
Crawford, P. B, Gosliner, W., & Kayman, H. (2011). The ethical basis for promoting nutritional health in public schools in the United States. Prev Chronic Dis ;8(5):A98. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/pcd/issues/2011/sep/10_0283.htm.
Kersh, R., Stroup, D. F., & Taylor, W. C. (2011). Childhood obesity: a framework for policy approaches and ethical considerations. Prev Chronic Dis 8(5):A93.http://www.cdc.gov/pcd/issues/2011/sep/10_0273.htm. Accessed [7/2/2015].
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Original Creation of the Earth (nebular hypothesis vs. six day creation)
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COMPARATIVE ESSAY INSTRUCTIONS
Topic:
1. Original creation of the Earth (nebular hypothesis vs. six-day creation)
Content and Outline
Use the following outline when writing your paper. Each point on the below outline should be a separate section (with the section heading, as indicated) within your paper.
I. Introduction
• Indicate which topic you chose from the list above.
• Indicate the purpose of your paper (i.e., to compare old-Earth and young-Earth viewpoints on your chosen topic).
II. Old-Earth Secular View
• What is the old-Earth secular viewpoint on your chosen topic?
• Do not discuss the old-Earth creationist viewpoint on your chosen topic. For a description of old-Earth creationism, go to http://rationalwiki.org/wiki/Old_Earth_creationism
III. Young-Earth View
• What is the young-Earth viewpoint on your chosen topic?
IV. Comparison of the Viewpoints
• Comparison is articulating similarities between the two viewpoints.
• Be sure to provide at least two similarities (comparisons) between the viewpoints.
V. Contrast of the Viewpoints
• Contrast is articulating differences between the two viewpoints.
• Be sure to provide at least two differences (contrasts) between the viewpoints.
VI. Conclusion
• Provide a summary statement of your paper.
• Be sure to restate your purpose.
• Do not introduce new material in your conclusion.
Length
This paper is to be 3–4 pages. Do not exceed this page limit. The title page and bibliography do not count toward the page total.
Format
You must use current APA format. Papers must be double-spaced with 1-inch margins all around. Font is to be Courier New or Times New Roman in 12-point font. Include a cover sheet with your name, instructor’s name, course number and title (e.g., PHSC 210, Elements of Earth Science), date, and paper title. There is no need to include an abstract in your paper.
Sources
Your Comparative Essay must include at least 4 academic sources (not including the course textbooks). Two of these additional sources must be from an old-Earth perspective, and the other two sources must be from a young-Earth perspective. Sources must be journal articles, manuscripts, scholarly textbooks, and/or internet sites from .edu or .gov sources. Avoid internet sites from .com, .net, .org, etc., as the information contained therein are not often peer reviewed. In particular, avoid Wikipedia. Also, study Bibles are not appropriate for this assignment. List all of your sources in a bibliography at the end of the paper.
Citation
Be sure to cite your sources in the body of your paper using current APA format.
SAMPLE ANSWER
Original Creation of the Earth
Original Creation of the Earth (nebular hypothesis vs. six day creation)
Introduction
Topic: The topic of this exercise is the original creation of earth and the two main opposing perspectives that seek to explain how it occurred. These are the nebular hypothesis which is secular and the six day creation which is based on biblical scripture.
Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to compare and contrast the two view points on the origin of the earth. One of the theories is the nebular theory which is based on secular scientific theories that were proposed to explain how the earth came to be. The other perspective, the six day creation, on the other hand is a Christian belief stated in the Bible about God, a supreme being deliberately created the earth.
Old Earth Secular View
The Old Earth Secular View of creation is a collective term that is used to refer to a several types of theories that are based on scientific knowledge as a means of explaining how the earth came to be in its present form. This form of reasoning relies on various branches of science such as geology, plate tectonics and various forms of radiometric dating as a means of establishing the age of the earth (LaPorte, 2014). It is termed as the old earth secular view due to the manner in which it is manifested relative to the young earth theory of creation. The ‘old’ is indicative of the belief that the earth is much older than 6000 years as indicated by the calendar followed by Judaism.
One of the more common beliefs associated with old-earth secular view is the ‘Big Bang Theory’ which is believed by scientists to have taken place over a billion years ago. The reason why it is termed as secular is that it exists parallel to religious theories of creation. Its origin is in science and rational or logical arguments thus its being called ‘secular’. Under this view, life on earth whether plant or animal came about as a result of progressive evolution from simple celled organisms whose cellular structure grew more and more complicated as the organisms sought to better adapt to their environment. According to this school of thought, evolution did not stop but is more of a continuous process taking place even today. Those who hold to this point of view are critical of those who believe in young earth creationism for completely ignoring logic (Herbert, 2014).
Young Earth Creationism
Young Earth creationism is a belief system that the earth is 6000 years old and was created in a total of six days out of nothing. The six days are taken as the literal days with 24 hours in each. This is a literal interpretation of what the Bible says in the creation story narrated in the book of Genesis which discusses the origins of earth and everything on it (Benton, 2014). Key to this belief is the belief in the existence of a supreme being who is known as the God of Abraham. This is the same God worshipped in Judaism, Christianity and also Islam albeit under different names. Under this theory humanity has virtually existed from time immemorial.
Those who take this point of view are motivated to stand by it due to their belief that what the Bible says is infallible. They therefore also oppose the secular perspective that the earth formed following a cataclysmic event in the universe followed by geological processes and evolution leading to the earth and life as known today. According to the young earth creation belief, everything that exists on earth whether natural or living has maintained the same form since it was created (MCGee, 2012).
Comparison and Contrast
Similarities
The first similarity that these two points of view share is the fact that whatever happened at the ‘beginning of time’ had a direct impact on how things are today. Regardless of the path followed, both alleged origins of the earth have led to nature being what it is today.
The second similarity that the old-earth secular belief and young earth creationism theory have is the fact that the processes that took place at the beginning of the earth put in place relevant parameters needed for the sustaining of life on earth. This is to say that both perspectives believe that life on earth is not an accident but rather something systematic.
Differences
The first difference between these two points of view is on the role of the supreme being. According to the old-earth secular belief, the earth came into existence due to the existence of the right conditions in the universe while young earth believes that God personally created everything.
The second difference is on the age of the earth. The old earth secular view takes it that the earth is at least a billion years old while the young earth view maintains that earth is six thousand years old.
Conclusion
From the above it is evident that there exists a sharp difference between the two perspectives. Proponents of both young earth creationism and old earth put a lot of effort into justifying their point of view. It is unlikely that the two will ever find a common ground due to the implication of the same. They however have areas of common ground as well as some stark differences and an understanding of these is key in differentiating the two.
References
Benton, A. (2014). Creationist Ministries Present a Distorted View of Human Evolution. Reports of the National Center for Science Education, 34(4).
Hebert, J. (2014). Ice Cores, Seafloor Sediments, and the Age of the Earth: Part 1. Acts & Facts, 43(6), 12-14.
LaPorte, C. (2013). Victorian literature, religion, and secularization. Literature Compass, 10(3), 277-287.
McGee, D. (2012). Creation Date of Adam from the Perspective of Young-Earth Creationism. Answers Research Journal, 5, 217-230.
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