U.S. Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act
U.S. Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA)
Order Instructions:
formed Consent
The concept of informing participants of what they participating in during a research study along with informing them of all possible side-effects, or outcomes, of their participation has only been in place for the last 50 years. The Declaration of Helsinki was the first documentation to state that any research involving humans needs to include informed consent of participants.
Review the historic perspective studies listed in this week’s reading. Then summarize one of the following explaining its role in the development of ethical research practices:
U.S. Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA)
Jesse Gelsinger – Gene Therapy Trial
Ellen Roche – Asthma Study
SAMPLE ANSWER
U.S. Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA)
The following discussion will indulge in examining the role of U.S. Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) in the development of ethical research practices. One of the roles of HIPAA in the development of ethical research practices is enhancing education of health care researchers and patients. HPPAA suggests that the ability to share patient information across the continuum of health care increases the responsibility to protect that information. According to Nass, Levit, Gostin and Institute of Medicine (U.S.) (2009), not only should patients be informed about the practices for the use and disclosure of their information, but they must also be given written consent to use and disclose the information for treatment, payment and health care operations. Another role of HIPAA in development of ethical research practices is protection of patients involved in the research from harm and preserving their rights as an essential to ethical research practice (Nass, Levit, Gostin & Institute of Medicine (U.S.), 2009). This is because ethical health research is vital to improving human health and health care. Therefore, HIPAA requires research to obtain individual authorization in all situations where the individual to be studied may want to disclose information for the research.
HIPAA also has a role in developing ethical research practices by condemning discrimination and all other vices in conduction health care research. In fact, HIPAA provides that ethical research practice can only be felt if strict punishments are offered to those researchers who do not abide by the provisions of HIPAA and Privacy Rules (Grove, Burns & Gray, 2013). HIPAA dictates that failure to observe the set standards in research can lead to severe civil or criminal penalties, which can be as high as $250,000, and/or prison terms of 10 years for those who sell, transfer, or use individually identifiable health information for commercial advantage, malicious harm, or for personal gain.
Reference
Grove, S. K., Burns, N., & Gray, J. (2013). The practice of nursing research: Appraisal, synthesis, and generation of evidence. St. Louis, Mo: Elsevier/Saunders.
Nass, S. J., Levit, L. A., Gostin, L. O., & Institute of Medicine (U.S.). (2009). Beyond the HIPAA privacy rule: Enhancing privacy, improving health through research. Washington, D.C: National Academies Press.
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Telenursing…the Future Is Now Paper
Guidelines and Grading Rubric
PURPOSE
The purpose of this assignment is to explore the specialty of telenursing as one example of the use of technology in various practice settings. Advantages and disadvantages for the patient and legal and ethical principles for the nurse of this technology will be explored.
COURSE OUTCOMES
This assignment enables the student to meet the following course outcomes:
CO #2: Investigate safeguards and decision-making support tools embedded in patient care technologies and information systems to support a safe practice environment for both patients and healthcare workers. (PO #4)
CO #6: Discuss the principles of data integrity, professional ethics, and legal requirements related to data security, regulatory requirements, confidentiality, and client’s right to privacy. (PO #6)
POINTS
This assignment is worth a total of 200 points.
DUE DATE
Your completed Telenursing…the Future Is Now paper is due at the end of Week 4. Submit it to the basket in the Dropbox by Sunday at 11:59 p.m. mountain time. Post your questions to the weekly Q & A Forum. Contact your instructor if you need additional assistance. See the Course Policies regarding late assignments. Failure to submit your paper to the Dropbox on time will result in a deduction of points.
BACKGROUND
Our text (Hebda, 2013) provides us with a broad perspective on telehealth. However, the specialty of telenursing is only briefly discussed. Healthcare is readily embracing any technology to improve patient outcomes, streamline operations, and lower costs. This technology includes the use of various applications based in various environments where registered nurses indirectly provide professional nursing care.
SCENARIO
The following scenario serves as the basis for your paper:
Manuel, one of your colleagues, is considering leaving his medical-surgical position where both of you have worked for the past 12 years. In fact, he has an interview in two weeks for a Telenurse Specialist position at a nurse-owned home health agency. This agency monitors the elderly and those with chronic illnesses to keep them from being readmitted to the hospital. Manuel is doing some research on his own and knows that the hours sound great and the pay is comparable. One advantage is that he can work from home (telecommute) most of the time and only interface with the agency for required meetings.
Manuel knows you are enrolled in this course. You have discussed various concepts that you noted in your Syllabus including technology, privacy, confidentiality, interoperability, legal and ethical issues, and patients’ access to the World Wide Web, just to name a few. Manuel has shared that he does not know much about telehealth and the role of nursing in this “new” technology. He has asked you to educate him on the advantages and disadvantages to patients of telenursing. Frankly, he does not understand what he might be doing on a day-to-day basis. One concern is the technology that may be involved.
Manuel has indicated that he realizes the final decision about a career move will be his choice, but he is seeking your knowledge based on concepts presented in this course. He wants to be knowledgeable about the role of the professional nurse in this practice setting prior to his interview.
You tell Manuel that you will need to do some research and that you will get back to him about your conclusion and recommendation. You have heard of telenursing and how it can prevent patients with COPD (chronic obstructive pulmonary disease) and CHF (congestive heart failure) from being readmitted to the hospital, but you recognize that you will need to do much more investigation.
DIRECTIONS
1. You are to research (find evidence), compose, and type a scholarly paper based on the scenario described above. Reflect on what you have learned in this class to date about technology, privacy rights, ethical issues, interoperability, patient satisfaction, consumer education, and other topics. Your text by Hebda (2013, Chapter 25) discusses telehealth in detail. However, your focus should be on the professional nurse’s role in telehealth, such as telenursing. Therefore, do not limit your review of the literature to your text. Nurses in various specialties need to know about the advantages and disadvantages of telenursing as it applies to their patients. For example, when you discharge a patient from an acute care setting, will a telenursing service assist that individual with staying out of the hospital? You may need to apply critical thinking skills to development of your paper.
2. Use Microsoft Word and APA formatting to develop your paper. Consult the Publication manual of the APA, 6th edition if you have questions, for example, margin size, font type and size (point), use of third person, and so forth. Take advantage of the writing service, Smarthinking, which is accessed by clicking on the link called the Tutor Source, found under the Course Home tab. Also, review and use the various documents in Doc Sharing related to APA.
3. The length of the paper should be 4–5 pages, excluding the title page and the reference page. Limit your references to key sources.
4. The paper should contain an Introduction that catches the attention of the reader with interesting facts and supporting sources of evidence, which need to be mentioned as in-text citations. The Body should present the advantages and disadvantages of telenursing from a patient perspective. The Conclusion and Recommendations should summarize your findings and state your position on whether Manuel should accept the position should it be offered to him.
5. NOTE: Review the section on Academic Honesty found in the Chamberlain Course Policies. All work must be original (in your own words) unless properly cited. This assignment will automatically be submitted through Turnitin, a plagiarism detection system.
6. Submit the completed paper to the Telenursing…the Future Is Now Dropbox by Sunday, 11:59 p.m. mountain time at the end of Week 4. Please post questions about this assignment to the weekly Q & A Forum so that the entire class may view the answers.
GRADING CRITERIA
Category Points % Description
Introduction 50 25% The Introduction provides evidence of an information search including in-text citations of the sources of evidence. It catches the reader’s attention with interesting facts and supporting sources.
Body 100 50% Appropriate headings are used to delineate when the introduction ends. More than three advantages and three disadvantages are identified, discussed briefly, and supported by citations.
Conclusion and Recommendations 25 12.5% Appropriate headings are used, making clear the conclusion and recommendations based on solid evidence, privacy rights, and ethical principles, and so forth. Writing in the third person, state your position regarding whether your colleague should consider this position.
Scholarly Writing and APA Format 25 12.5% • Title page, running head, and page numbers. (3 pts.)
• Introduction, body, and conclusion/recommendations sections are clearly labeled. There is a logical flow between the sections. (10 pts.)
• Grammar, punctuation, and sentence structure are correct. (2 pts.)
• Citations throughout demonstrate support of student’s ideas and opinions. (5 pts.)
• Reference page includes all citations. (3 pts.)
• Evidence of spell and grammar check. (2 pts.)
Total 200 100%
A quality assignment will meet or exceed all of the above requirements.
GRADING RUBRIC
Assignment Criteria A
Outstanding or Highest Level of Performance B
Very Good or High Level of Performance C
Competent or Satisfactory Level of Performance F
Poor or Failing or Unsatisfactory Level of Performance
Introduction
50 points Evidence of information search. Catches the reader’s attention with interesting facts and supporting sources that include citations to three or more scholarly sources.
46–50 points Evidence of information search. Catches the reader’s attention with interesting facts and supporting sources that include citations to two scholarly resources.
42–45 points Evidence of information search includes only one citation to scholarly resource.
No attention catching “hook” noted.
38–41 points Little or no evidence of information search. No citations provided and/or there is no attention-catching “hook.”
0–37 points
Body
100 points More than 3 advantages and 3 disadvantages from a patient perspective are identified and supported by citations.
92–100 points At least 3 advantages and 3 disadvantages from a patient perspective are identified and supported by citations.
84–91 points At least 2 advantages and 2 disadvantages from a patient perspective are identified and supported by citations.
76–83 points Only one advantage and one disadvantage from a patient perspective is identified and supported by citations.
0–75 points
Conclusion and Recommendation
25 points Conclusion is presented with recommendation based on solid evidence, personal privacy rights, and ethical principles supported by citations.
23–25 points Conclusion contains evidence for recommendation, but may lack persuasive use of privacy rights and/or ethical principles. Includes citations.
21–22 points Indicates conclusion and recommendation but does not address privacy rights and/or ethical principles.
19–20 points Fails to include conclusion or recommendation.
0–18 points
Scholarly Writing & APA Format
25 points • Title page, running head, and page numbers. (3 pts.)
• Minimum of three sections including the Introduction, Body, and Conclusions and Recommendations. Each section has at least three sentences. (10 pts.)
• Grammar, punctuation, and sentence structure are correct. (2 pts.)
• Citations throughout demonstrate support of student’s ideas and opinions. (5 pts.)
• Reference page includes all citations and no errors in format are noted. (3 pts.)
• Evidence of spell and grammar check. (2 pts.)
23–25 points • Minimal error in APA title page noted.
• Minimal errors in grammar, spelling, punctuation, and/or sentence structure noted.
• Citations are present but not in correct format.
• References are present, with minimal errors in format.
• Minimal red or green wavy lines within document.
21–22 points • Some errors in APA title page noted.
• Some errors in grammar, spelling, punctuation, and/or sentence structure noted.
• Citations are present but not in correct format.
• References are present, with some errors in format.
• Some red or green wavy lines within document.
19–20 points • Multiple errors in APA formatting.
• Multiple grammar, spelling, and punctuation errors noted.
• Citations are missing.
• References are missing or incomplete.
• No evidence of proofreading prior to submitting paper.
0–18 points
Total Points Possible = 200 points
Please, in the references include the book that we work on in the class
Hebda, T., & Czar, P., (2013). Handbook of informatics for nurses & healthcare professionals (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
In the guidelines it is requested to explain my position as a nurse.
I work as a Care Manager in the city hospital and providing education to the patients with chronic diseases like COPD, CHF, Diabetes to prevent re-admissions. And the patienst with CHF disease I refer to TeleHealth program to monitor and help to prevent re-admissions within 30days. Aslo, if the patient referred to home care agency after discharge , this agency provide TeleHealth services.
SAMPLE ANSWER
Telenursing
Technology advancement has largely contributed improved quality of service deliver in healthcare, which has rapidly driven its adoption. Many countries such as the United States and Sweden have embraced technology in their healthcare, and many others are following suit with an aim of enhancing quality and reducing the cost of accessing healthcare (Peeters et al., 2012). Telenursing has become popular in rendering healthcare to patients in various settings to improve patient outcomes, lower costs and streamline operations. Telenursing involves use of technology in provision of professional care. Telenurses who have multiple clinical experience are expected to work independently, make decisions about need for further care, and give self care advice or refer patients to another caregiver (Madoc-Jones et al., 2007). The paper deliberates on specialty of telenursing incorporating case study involving Manuel. It further deliberates on advantages and disadvantages and legal, ethical principles for telenurses.
Case Scenario
Manuel plans to leave his medical surgical position for a telenurse specialist position to work for an agency that monitors the elderly and people with chronic illnesses, so as to help them from being readmitted. However, he has no knowledge and experience as a telenurse. Therefore, the discussion explores on the various aspects in telenursing as well as benefits and drawbacks to help Manuel become familiar with the role awaiting him. Manuel works as a Care Manager in the city hospital and providing education to the patients with chronic diseases like COPD, CHF, Diabetes to prevent re-admissions and patients with CHF disease. He will use TeleHealth program to monitor and help to prevent re-admissions within 30 days. In addition, if the patient referred to home care agency after discharge this agency will provide TeleHealth services.
Call System Software
One of the technologies that telenurses employ in executing their mandate is the telephone. Telephone calls allow the telenurse to provide support and advice to patients at their remote locations. It is important therefore for telenurse to understand how to use this software to impact on their healthcare (Ernesäter, Holmström & Engström, 2009). There are different communication gadgets that are essential in facilitating communication. Telenurse understand the functionality of these systems, understand, the etiquette when communicating with clients. Some of the technologies that relates to telephone call system include central scheduling that permits certain patients to call and schedule their appointments and simplify tests.
Others such as speech-assisted automated attendant systems recognize voices and reduce staff overtime and other problems such as dropping of calls or negative patient interactions (Boye, 2006). Other types of telephone technologies in health setting include self-registered kiosks, wireless connectivity, master patient index computer terminals and online bill pay. Other useful technologies that a telenurse must understand how to use include, electronic health records, social media, tablets, Smartphone and computerized physician/provider order entry and clinical decision support among many others.
Advantages of Telenursing
Since inception and introduction of the concept of telenursing, various benefits have become evident in healthcare delivery. Researchers indicate that telenursing technologies have proved efficient in promoting quality healthcare especially in management of chronic conditions such as diabetes and chronic heart failure among others (Joseph, 2006). The rate of mortality and re-admission has also improved through telenursing services. Patients are able to access vital information and advice that helps them to manage their health conditions. Computerized decision support system is one of the valuable sources of information as it allows users to search and gather relevant information that impacts on the quality of health care (Ernesäter, Holmström & Engström, 2009). Through the decision support systems, accurate information is accessed and important tips on management of different patient situations is addressed helping in assessing the condition of patients in the best way.
Telenursing has become one of the most cost efficient approaches to rendering quality patient care. A patient will not have to travel to a health facility to receive care as this is done through the telephone calls. The patients, therefore, save money that otherwise they could have used to move from one point to another. Another advantage of telenursing from the perspective of the patient is that it is one way of saving time (Ernesäter, Holmström & Engström, 2009). A patient will just be required to receive a phone at their remote locations. This therefore, saves them time that they could have spent moving to and from a health facility. The other advantage of telenursing is that it improves or rather increases patients self-care ability (Hebda & Czar, 2013). The patient is given an opportunity to take care of themselves through the advices they are given through the call. A medical practitioner does not necessarily have to encounter the patient and this makes the patients to take initiative to manage their health conditions.
Use of home telecare is instrumental in improving patient independence and safety as well as provides support for those with chronic illness. Patients need not to worry about the shortage of nurses, as through the technology, many patients can be accessed (Ernesäter, Holmström & Engström, 2009). Patients as well have an opportunity to call and inquire about various issues such as medication to enhance their healthcare.
Disadvantages of Telenursing
Even though telenursing has a number of advantages, it as well has some disadvantages that nurses must look out for when delivering healthcare assistance to their patients. One of the disadvantages is that there is a risk of miscommunication between the caller and the receiver, which is likely to impact on the patient outcome. This is experienced especially when there are some barriers in the communication processes. For instance, when the patient is in a noisy environment, this is likely to affect the communication process leading to inappropriate medical advice (Ström, Marklund & Hildingh, 2009). This requires that the caller and the receiver/ patient communicate in a noise-free environment. Other forms of barriers such as semiotic, language can be avoided by ensuring that telenurses improve on their listening and communication skills to enhance the process of their patient assessment.
Another problem is that telenurses cannot see the patient to whom they are providing care (Pettinari & Jessop, 2001). This may have negative implication on their assessments and formation of opinion about the credibility of the caller as well as on the health condition of the patient. A patient may not be able to ascertain whether the caller is specialized and experienced in rendering the health care services or not. Therefore, these perceptions are likely to impact on the quality of care as sometimes the patient may develop negative attitude that may affect their recovery process. The caller as well may not be in a position to understand the exact health condition of the patient trough cellphone conversation.
Further disadvantage is the likelihood of conflicts ensuing between what is best for the patient and limited healthcare resources available. Nurses fear making wrong decisions, but if the resources available are not adequate, it may lead to ethical dilemma as some of the health providers may be referred to the healthcare system compromising on the patient care quality (Holmstrom & Hoglund, 2007).
Telenursing technologies are prone to security threats and other communication problems such as network problems that are likely to interfere with the communication process. During such instances, patients are likely to experience problems especially when they require assessment and advice from their telenurses and this may jeopardize the patient health outcome.
Conclusion
Telenursing is one of the professions that have taken healthcare to another level. With telenursing, various benefits have become evident. Patients save time, costs, and it promotes quality healthcare. Some disadvantages that nurses must look into include security threats and communication barriers among many others.
It is important for telenurses to understand legal and ethical practices in their duties. Even though technology is beneficial, it requires adherence to ethical practices such as respect, independence, autonomy, honesty, and integrity. When communicating, it is important for telenurses to be respectful to enhance communication. They are as well required to providw appropriate assessment based on evidence research to impact on the healthcare of the patient. There are a number of legal aspects that are important that telenurses need to consider in rendering their care, such as confidentiality and privacy. They must protect the privacy of their patients when communicating (Bohnenkamp, McDonald, Lopez, Krupinski, Blackett, 2004). They must not disclose information about their patients to third parties without the consent of the patient. Telenurses must also consider legal implications that relate to in appropriate use of telephone and communication gadgets. They are required to use the systems in an appropriate manner to provide accurate and sincere information to avoid any legal implications/consequences.
The opportunity before Manuel, even though is complex and challenging, it is recommended that he accepts it. Having experience in clinical settings serving as a medical surgeon for 12 years indicates that he has requisite skills and competence to provide care to patients suffering from COPD (chronic obstructive pulmonary disease) and CHF (congestive heart failure). Furthermore, he has a passion and if he is determined, he is going to learn how to use technology to render care. As a nurse, he should as well be ready to face challenging scenarios and yearn to grow in his career. I, therefore, support that he goes ahead and takes the job to help promote quality of healthcare and impact on patient outcome among his target population.
Hebda, T., & Czar, P., (2013). Handbook of informatics for nurses & healthcare professionals (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
Holmstrom, I., & Hoglund, A. (2007) The faceless encounter: ethical dilemmas in telephone nursing. Journal of Clinical Nursing, 16: 1865–1871.
Joseph, A. (2006). Care coordination and telehealth technology in promoting self-management among chronically ill patients. Telemed J E Health, 12(2):156–9
Peeters, J et al. (2012). Factors influencing the adoption of home telecare by elderly or chronically ill people: a national survey, Journal of Clinical Nursing, 21(21/22): 3183-193.
Pettinari C.J. & Jessop L. (2001) ‘Your ears become your eyes’: Managing the absence of visibility in NHS Direct. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 36: 668–675.
Competitive Strategy (Worth a Maximum of 15% of Course marks)
Discuss the major theoretical approaches to the building and sustaining of competitive strategy using the available academic literature including blue ocean strategy and other approaches. This assessment component must be based on minimum of 12 peer-reviewed academic articles. No wiki or general web sites please.
Essay/Report style- can use headings and graphs, tables and diagrams.
SAMPLE ANSWER
Introduction
A firm achieves a competitive advantage when it persistently obtains higher levels of profit than its competitors do. This explains why there are a number of theories in the strategy domain that extensively address competitive advantage in an attempt to explain how management decisions and market factors may be manipulated to result into superior economic performance. To gain competitive advantage, an organization is first expected to create superior value for consumers by pricing their commodities a bit lower than the competitors, or instead develop a unique product or service that the consumers will be willing to purchase at premium price (Daniela 2014: 523). Hence, the firm needs to create a competitive strategy that will enable it to establish a much profitable and highly sustainable position in the industry compared to competitors. This profitability is also greatly influenced by the level of attractiveness of the industry. This paper champions the thesis that competitive advantage can be gained and sustained by the use of various competitive theoretical approaches.
Blue Ocean Strategy
For many years, companies have for long engaged in head-to-head competition while searching for the sustained and profitable growth. Hence, they have struggled for competitive advantage, market shares, and differentiation. Unfortunately, with the current overcrowded industries, such head on competitions will not benefit a company in any way, but instead will lead to a bloody “red ocean” of rivals, all of whom will be fighting for the gradually shrinking pool of profits (Ng, Lau & Ismail 2014: 132). Therefore, there are minimum chances that this approach will eventually lead to profitable growth in future. This is why it has been argued that most of the future leading companies will succeed by avoiding the red oceans, and instead creating blue oceans of uncontested market space with a great promise for growth (W. Chan & Mauborgne 2005: 105). These strategic moves, also known as value innovation, create powerful improvements in value for both the firm and its consumers, thus, the rivals are rendered obsolete and this unleashes new demand.
In this strategy, the red oceans signify the various industries existing today, while the blue oceans signify the nonexistent industries, also known as the unknown market space. Hence, where in red ocean companies try to outperform their rivals by grabbing the greatest market share of the existing demand, in blue oceans companies are focusing on creating new market space, demand, and thus an opportunity for highly profitable growth (Čirjevskis, Homenko & Lačinova 2011: 201). Despite the fact that some of the blue oceans are created beyond the already present industry boundaries, a greater number are developed from within the red oceans simply by expanding these existing boundaries (W. Chan & Mauborgne 2005: 106). In blue oceans, there is simply no competition since the rules are yet to be set. The market space has vast potential that has not been explored.
Red oceans will always be an important part of the business life. However, with the supply exceeding customer demand in most industries, competition for the greatest share will no longer be sufficient enough for companies to achieve and sustain superior performance. As a result, companies need to look beyond this competition in the established industries by seizing new opportunities for growth and profits by creating blue oceans as well.
Figure 1: The Profit and Growth Consequences of Creating Blue Oceans
According to research conducted by W. Chan and Mauborgne (2005: 107) on 108 companies, they noted that 86% of the launches were line extensions while another 14% were aimed at creating new market spaces. Although these line extensions in the red oceans delivered 62% of the total revenues, they only led to 39% of the total profits (W. Chan & Mauborgne 2005: 107). Contrary to this, the 14% that were aimed at creating blue oceans resulted in 38% total revenues and a startling high amount of 61% in total profits. As is noted in figure 1, the performance benefits of creating blue oceans are clearly seen, and they outnumber the benefits of red oceans.
There are quite a number of forces that drive the rising imperative to develop Blue Oceans. Increased technological advances have substantially contributed to the improvement of industrial productivity, which have allowed suppliers to produce a wide range of products and services. Globalization is also another factor as it has led to the dismantling of trade barriers between nations. This has also contributed to information on products and services being available globally (Singh 2012: 20). While supply is on the rise due to the rise in competition, there is no evidence to proof the rise in demand as well. As such, there is an increase in commoditization of products and services, intensified price wars, and also the shrinking profit margins. “For major product and service categories, brands are generally becoming more similar, and as they are becoming more similar people increasingly select basing on price” (Qtd from W. Chan & Mauborgne 2005, p.108).
Resource Based View Strategy
A different conceptual foundation which features more on the internal firm capabilities and less on the industry structure argues that a firm’s position to achieve and sustain competitive advantage is directly linked to the firm specific resources (Laosirihongthong, Prajogo & Adebanjo 2014: 1232). This resource based theory of the firm puts great emphasis on the role of developing unique and valued know-how as well as capabilities that will be close to impossible for rivals to imitate (Madhok, Li& Priem 2010: 94). This is usually difficult and it requires the firm to select effective strategies basing on the development of resources and capabilities. The presence of multiple resources and capabilities positively contribute to the development of the highest competitive entry barriers (Hinterhuber 2013: 797).
Figure 2: Resources and Capabilities Based View of the Firm
For a firm to develop a true cost or differentiation advantage, the firm’s resources and capabilities must be valuable, rare, imperfectly imitable, and non substitutable (Newbert 2008: 745). “If a resource or capability yields the potential to enable a firm to reduce costs and/or respond to environmental opportunities and threats, it is valuable, and to the extent that a firm is able to effectively deploy such a resource or capability, it will attain a competitive advantage.” (Qtd. From Newbert 2008, p. 747 ). Judging from this statement, it is clear that the level of competitive advantage achieved by a firm will basically rely on the value of its resources and capabilities. Hence, when the resources and capabilities are of marginal value, the firm will only attain minimal competitive advantages compared to firms with greater resource and capabilities values. This theory creates an assumption that the firm is well placed to exploit its resources and capabilities. This is because competitive advantage can only be achieved once the potentially valuable resources and capabilities are deployed effectively (Costa, Cool & Dierickx 2013: 449). Hence, resources and capabilities must be deployed together so as to attain competitive advantage. To further support this, Madhok, Li and Priem (2010: 99) state that firms are also required to process raw materials to make them more useful. For this to be effective, the resources must be put in use in a group of other resources to form effective combination. This is why Costa, Cool and Dierickx (2013: 449) contend that organizations may develop rents not only through the choice of better resources than that of competitors, but also by exploiting these resources more effectively with the use of proper capabilities. “no matter how great a firm’s capabilities might be, they do not generate economic profit if the firm fails to acquire the resources whose productivity would be enhanced by its capabilities” (Qtd. From Newbert 2008, p. 748).
Competitive advantage is usually obtained when the firm achieves a cost level, exploits untapped market opportunities, and neutralizes threats that competitors would otherwise fail to accomplish (Varey 1995: 45). This, however, may be impossible to achieve if the resources and capabilities are present widely. Consequently, competitive advantage will be more likely achieved only when the exploited resources and capabilities are rare or only possessed by few firms in a small industry where perfect competition will be impossible (Srivastava, Fahey & Christensen 2001: 777). Since resources and capabilities are supposed to be explored in a combination, it means that the rareness will not be at the individual resources and capabilities, but instead at the level of resource-capability combinations (Newbert 2008: 750). For instance, if a particular combination of resources and capabilities is common, a greater number of firms will be able to imitate the resulting strategy, hence reducing a firm’s competitive advantage. Therefore, the individual resources and capabilities need not be rare for the firm to achieve competitive advantage, but the combination is what must be rare.
Porter’s Generic Strategies
The approaches involved in this strategy are referred to as generic strategies mainly because they can be applied to products and services of all industries, and to organizations with varying sizes. Porter named the three approaches “cost leadership”, “differentiation” and “focus”. The focus strategy is then further divided into two parts; the cost focus and the differentiation focus (See figure 3).
Important questions for the economy are how firms compete and which strategies they choose. An improved understanding of a firm’s competitiveness is also important in that it contributes to the improvement of existing policies relating to competition and other relevant issues (‘Achieving the Superiority’ 2010: 152). This improvement will, hence, provide valuable support to the efforts meant to continuously develop markets and businesses. This understanding is also important when it comes to comparing the domestic and internal contexts by being placed to effectively assess a firm’s competitive behavior. “If firms pursue any of the three recommended generic competitive strategies they will be able to outperform competitors who do not pursue such strategies.” (Qtd. From Ormanidhi & Stringa 2008, p. 56).
From a firm’s point of view, a relevant and most important aspect of competitive environment should be the industry in which it operates in. This is where the competition takes place (Allen, Helms, Takeda & White 2007: 72). According to Porter’s analysis, these industries contain firms that create and develop close substitutes, but the competitive environment of the firm’s feature a common structure with the five competitive forces. These forces are what will determine the overall level of competitiveness and profitability of the industry (Gurǎu 2007: 369). These include; threat of new entry, intensity of the level of rivalry among the already existing firms, pressure from the presence of substitute products, bargaining power of consumers, and the bargaining power of suppliers (Gonzalez-Benito & Suárez-González 2010: 1030). Profitability- the turn on invested capital- is related negatively to the overall strength of these five forces. Therefore, the greater the joint strength of the five forces affecting industries, the lower the industry profitability (Miller & Friesen 1986: 39).
Porter’s generic strategies help a firm to analyze the industry in which it functions in, in terms of the five competitive forces, so as to note its strengths and weaknesses in relation to the actual state of competition. This is possible because if the firm realizes the effects of each of these five forces, it will be better placed to take actions so as to defend itself or grasp an opportunity to enable it to be better placed so that these forces do not affect it (Gonzalez-Benito & Suárez-González 2010: 1032). Differentiation and low cost are the two forms of strategic or competitive advantage that firms can use to position themselves effectively against the pressures of the five forces. When these strategies are applied, firms will be better placed in the industry, and this will give them an opportunity for achieving higher profitability than their competitors. To achieve competitive advantage, these strategies cannot be pursued all at the same time. Instead, they must all be considered individually.
The cost leadership strategy is mainly focused on bringing in sales and taking them away from competitors. This happens by increasing profits by lowering prices, and ensuring that the average industry price is charged for products. This is important as it brings in sales since consumers will not understand why they have to pay higher prices in other companies for a similar product. The differentiation strategy, on the other hand, ensures that products are differentiated and made more attractive than those of consumers. This is enhanced by the presence of effective research, development and innovation among many others. Lastly, the focus strategy ensures that a company focuses on a particular niche in the market. This is made effective when the firm takes the effort of understanding the market dynamics and unique needs of customers.
Bowman’s Strategy Clock
Figure 4: Bowman’s Strategy Clock
Bowman’s strategy clock is based on an argument that key variables, when it comes to positioning, include price and perceived quality both of which are major determinants of value (Varey 1995: 47). To achieve these, Bowman makes an assumption that five potentially successful routes can be followed, while three others will lead to straight failure.
Position 1: Low price/Low Value
When the products of a company are only differentiated minimally, the company will most definitely be in this position whereby the sales are only made on price alone. The firms in this position never choose to compete here, as it features the bargaining region. Therefore, consumers have an opportunity of bargaining the prices into an amount they feel is suitable for the products they want to purchase. This is usually because consumers cannot find any differentiated value, thus they know that they possess the power to manipulate prices as a result of many competitors. Firms in this position can improve their chances of gaining and sustaining competitive advantage by cost effectively selling volume and also developing new ways of attracting more customers (Laosirihongthong, Prajogo & Adebanjo 2014: 1240). It may be impossible to achieve customer loyalty; however, one way of being ahead of other competitors in this position is by always being one step ahead by selling more products than they do. Therefore, there is hope since the products may be of low quality, but judging from the prices, customers will feel more comfortable purchasing from these companies.
Position 2: Low Price
This position can be compared to Porter’s generic strategies: low cost leader position. The companies available in this position usually struggle to lower costs and also achieve high volume to counteract the negative effects of low margins (Ormanidhi & Stringa 2008: 60). Over time, such a company using this strategy will turn out to be most powerful in the market as it will have increased its market share. This is one way of gaining and sustaining competitive advantage over other companies. In case a company’s strategy to be low cost leader fails, the result may be catastrophic to all companies in the industry but beneficial for consumers. This is because there may develop a price war situation whereby each company is trying to take control by altering prices.
Position 3: Hybrid (Moderate price/moderate differentiation)
This approach is a combination of the low cost approach, however it also emphasizes on product differentiation so as to offer consumers better value for their money. These companies also focus on volume; however, their main agenda is to build their reputation by offering good prices for equally good products. This approach enables a company to build and maintain competitive advantage as there is an assurance that the products will be of high quality, despite the fact that prices are fairly low (Costa, Cool & Dierickx 2013: 456). Hence, this company will be better placed to have more loyal consumers as items are of good quality and prices are affordable compared to what is presented to them in other companies.
Position 4: Differentiation
This is also another approach that is quite similar to Porter’s view of differentiation. It is basically emphasizing on offering differentiation so consumers would prefer certain products to others from another company. Therefore, when the high perceived value is offered, the company can either choose to increase price when there is higher margins, or keep prices lower so as to increase market share (Hinterhuber 2013: 800). This is where branding is very important, as the company’s product will always be related to higher quality than others. This strategy must be applied with care; otherwise, the company will fail as a result of running low on resources. Competitive advantage in this case will rather be achieved when there are higher profit margins, or an increased market share. This is because; the production of higher value products will need extra resources. Companies use the extra income to keep up with the change in value. Therefore, in the event that these new sources of income fail to yield results, the company will not be able to keep up. The higher the value of products compared to that of other companies, the better the competitive advantage.
Position 5: Focused Differentiation
This strategy is usually characterized by the presentation of a higher perceived value at a rather substantial premium price. The consumers who purchase in this category are basically focused on the product’s perceived value only. This means that price is not a factor for these consumers, as they have a certain kind of product value they are in search of. Companies that offer designer products are more likely to be found in this position. Bowman states that the products do not necessarily have to be of much higher value as the consumers are basically relying on their perceived value of the products. Therefore, if consumers feel like a certain brand offers high value products; they will purchase it without considering if the products indeed have more value than others. The competitive advantage for such a company will be gained and sustained by focusing on target markets and high margins (Daniela 2014: 529). This means that the company will focus on producing goods that its target market will most likely purchase. This increases the odds of having many consumers purchase expensive products. This in turn will result into high profit margins that the company will enjoy and use to sustain its position by further developing more valuable products and selling at premium prices.
Position 6: Increased price/Standard Product
This strategy features a sudden increase in price without an equal increase in product quality. It is, however, basically a gamble as the high price may either result into positive or negative impacts on the firm. There are times when the price increase in accepted by consumers, this is probably where the previous price was very low for the products. Hence, consumers will not mind topping up the amount. However, if the product is of poor quality, and this strategy is sought, the consumers may decline the change and thus lose loyalty in the company. This, in turn, results into loss of market share that will also affect the competitive advantage of the company (Singh 2012: 26). Another disadvantage of this strategy is that it may only be applied for short term use, maybe to boost market share, but must soon be discontinued. This is because in a competitive industry, another company will soon imitate this strategy and set another premium price, thus affecting this company’s profitability.
Position 7: High Price/ Low Value
This strategy only applies in a monopoly market, whereby goods and services are only offered by a single company. There are no competitions, which is why the company can charge whatever amount it prefers since there is no risk of losing market share. If this is the only company with the goods and services, consumers will have to pay for the products whether they agree to the pricing or not. This knowledge is what gives the company an advantage to make the most of the situation as such markets never last. Soon there will be new entries, and competition will be triggered. Therefore, companies will be forced to once again focus on the value of products and the prices they offer as well.
Position 8: Low value/ Standard Price
Generally, a low product value leads to a low product price so as to attract consumers to purchase the product. Therefore, this last strategy is the worst that companies may choose to use as they may appear greedy and selfish. With this approach, failure is predicted easily. Consumers will obviously prefer to pay a standard price for better valued products, or instead a low price for low valued products.
In a competitive industry, the last three strategies will most definitely lead to failure as customers will move in search of better product offers in other companies. This positioning approach is usually not static as competitor positions will most definitely change in response to new entries, or changes in strategies as a result of market or internal company conditions.
Structure Conduct Performance Approach
Over many years, this approach has offered guidance for many scholars who wished to further develop approaches for competitive strategy (Madhok, Li & Priem 2010: 94). This approach features three major elements: first, the structure of industries that are mainly defined by concentration, market share distribution and many other characteristics; Second, the conduct of firms that usually involves their action in relation to price setting, advertisement expenditures, technology and many others; Third, the performance of firms and industries as identified by profitability measurements. These elements of structure, conduct and performance are usually bound by three main casual relationships: The effects of structure on firm conduct, the effects of structure on firm performance, and the effects of firm conduct on its performance. The most important relationship, in this case, is the one between structure of industries and firm’s performance. When it comes to considering performance, an assumption is made that the market power is positively related to profitability. Therefore, the higher the market power, the higher the profitability will also be, and vice versa. “The manufacturing industry over 1936-1940 found support for the hypothesis that profitability of firms in highly concentrated industries is larger than in less concentrated ones” (Qtd. From ‘Achieving the Superiority’ 2010, p. 160).
Various researches have been conducted on the different approaches for competitive strategy, and the SCP model always gives differing results commonly depending on heterogeneity degrees (Afuah 2013: 259). However, this finding can be more refined when the relationship between concentration and performance assumed by the SCP model would stand in homogeneous and not heterogeneous industries. Although structure was initially considered to be exogenous in this model, the most important issues relating to it can all be summed up under barriers to entry. According to Daniela (2014: 526), the factors that can be interpreted as barriers to entry include, economies of scale, differentiation advantages that products have, and the advantages of absolute cost. Therefore, although there is an assumption made on structure, it does not mean that it is an irrelevant component. Therefore, all these components must be used equally in an evaluation expected to result in competitive strategy. This is why this model has always been criticized. It is clear that the conduct of a firm and its profitability will most definitely influence market structure.
This model, therefore, can be used by firms to gain and sustain competitive advantage in that firms will know how to influence the three factors so as to result with good results on the other. Since competitive strategy is all about getting power over the other companies, by offering goods or services that they cannot easily imitate, this company may choose to adopt a conduct that will enable it to change its structure and eventually lead to improved performance. The price setting conduct can be used to gain competitive advantage in that when the best prices are offered, consumers will be attracted in high numbers (Gonzalez-Benito & Suárez-González 2010: 1039). The product must also be considered so as to ensure the consumers will not result into a great loss for the company by purchasing goods at throw away prices. Therefore, the company may decide to calculate the costs of manufacturing the product, and then sell it at minimal profits to avoid crisis. This sudden increase in consumers for the company is just part of gaining competitive advantage, and must therefore be improved for the company to sustain its competitive advantage. The sustenance can be achieved once the company is sure the consumer loyalty has been gained, and not just their one time appearance once the price has been lowered. This is because its profit margin and increased market share will be improving every day, and not rising high for a couple of weeks before dropping tremendously.
The relationships described in this model will play a major role in guiding the formation of a competitive strategy. For example, it is stated that the structure related to the performance of the firm. Therefore, when the structure of the industry is concentrated, it means that the company should be experiencing better performance. This is due to the fact that there is an opportunity for obtaining increased market share and profit margins. This information will hence be used in determine the conduct of the firm to achieve competitiveness. A concentrated market structure means that there are more consumers than companies can cater for. Therefore, a firm may decide to lower prices for a couple of months so as to increase market share. This unique opportunity will be attractive for consumers, who will henceforth shop in this company. After some time, the company may opt to increase both price and product value. This is a strategy to ensure that customers are not lost in the process of increasing profit margins. With this, the company will have gained competitive advantage, and will be better placed to act as the price setter in its industry since it will possess the largest market share.
Conclusion
In light of the discussion presented above, it is clear that there are various strategies that can enable a company to achieve and sustain competitive advantage. The five discussed in this paper are the major and most commonly used strategies. All of these strategies are focused on placing the company at a better industry position, providing customers with value at fair prices, and offering unique products to satisfy the unmet needs of consumers. They, however, achieve these through different approaches. The Blue Oceans strategy focuses on the creation of a new market space; the resource based view focuses on developing rare products that will limit competition through the possibility of substitution; and Porter’s generic strategies focuses on forces within the industry that can affect competitive advantage. Bowman’s Strategic Clock is a strategy that focuses on different directions that companies may take to achieve and maintain competitive advantage in different market situations. The SCP model, on the other hand works on relationships, and how one action may be manipulated to result to competitive advantage for the firm as a whole.
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Mid-term Exam
Answer each question below and reference course materials to explain your answers. No independent research is expected or necessary. This exam requires 4-5 double spaced typed pages plus a cover page with your name, the date and BLE 215 and Section. Required font: Times New Roman 12 with one inch margins. Staple your pages together. You should avoid excess spacing. Folders or covers are not required. Bolding of course materials used is very helpful and recommended. Number each question using Roman Numerals and a) b), etc. for any sub-parts. There is no need to restate the questions.
When you refer to course materials, simply include the author’s name, if applicable, in parenthesis. A reference page is not required. When using Trevino, also give a page no. after her name. For example, (Trevino, p. 25). Use an assortment of text, articles, cases, films and ethics concepts to explain your answers. There are many course materials on BB that you can use in addition to the text, class notes and anything presented in class such as films. Also, you should reference your CSR team project. The questions are not cumulative, i.e. answer each one independently of the other. You may repeat class materials in each answer but also strive for some variety. You have many course resources available for use to help you answer the questions.
Question 1 (25 points)
Joseph Johnson argues in his article, Natural Law and the Fiduciary Duties of Business Managers that “simply put, stakeholder theory sounds good in social theory but will not work in practice.”
Explain his reasoning in terms of fiduciary duty, profits and stakeholders.
Do you agree or disagree?
Would Milton Friedman agree or disagree and why or why not? Would Edward Freeman agree or disagree and why or why not?
Does stakeholder theory and corporate social responsibility conflict with the fiduciary duties of management and the board of directors to maximize shareholder wealth?
Question 2 (25 points)
Steve Kelman provides a critique of the cost-benefit analysis and whether it leads to a “flawed ethical result.”
Do you agree or disagree with his analysis?
Is cost-benefit analysis sustainable?
What other ethics concepts may yield more sustainable results?
Which is most appropriate for business?
Question 3 (25 Points)
In regard to the Ford Pinto Case, apply the Hosmer Model of Moral Analysis and
assess the economic outcomes, legal requirements and ethical duties. Express the moral problem so that everyone involved will believe that their particular interests have been recognized and included.
Question 4 (25 points)
You have been hired by Multi-LimbTech, International, Inc.,(MLTI) a cutting edge designer and seller of artificial limbs. You are excited about this job since it not only pays well but the company also provides a valuable service to humanity that results in amazing scientific advances that enhance peoples’ lives. However, after several months, you discover that one of the top selling leg prosthesis has a design defect. You are told not to be concerned since the product is not regulated by the government. Another inquiry is met with no response. You learn that the company has donated $100,000 to a local medical board that endorses this product. In one country where this product is distributed, gifts are very common to secure business transactions. Use course materials as you answer the following questions:
Can you identify conflicts and pressures?
What kinds of questions should you ask?
What are the various stakeholder interests?
Is what is legal here also ethical?
How can this company “do good and make a profit” (synergies of ethics and earnings)?
Do ethical norms vary across cultures?
Note: This case is fictional and intended for classroom instruction only.
SAMPLE ANSWER
Business Mid-term Exam
Question 1
I disagree with Johnson’s argument. Stakeholder theory argues that the principle aim of a business/organization is to create optimum value for stakeholders. In order for a business/organization to be sustainable and successful, executives should uphold the interests of consumers, employees, suppliers, shareholders and communities aligned with and moving towards the same direction. In relation this, innovations to make these interests aligned is more significant than the simple approach of trading off stakeholders’ interests against each other[1]. Therefore, by focusing on the management of stakeholders, executives will manage to create optimum value for shareholders and other financiers[2]. For instance, an IT business may conduct a campaign against cybercrimes such hacking the business’ systems. When such a campaign succeeds by reducing the levels of cyber crimes, such a business shall have satisfied the interest of stakeholders such as policemen who are in charge of handling criminal issues.
In relation to the aspect of profits, upholding the interest of consumers by offering services or goods that meet their expectations can lead to the generation more customers. As a result, the business can generate more revenues, which in turn can increase its profit margins.
Fiduciary duty refers to a legal obligation to act solely in a given party’s interest. Since the stakeholder theory aims at satisfying the interests of stakeholders, this theory is in line with the fiduciary duty, which advocates for acting according to the interest of other parties. Thus, both the social corporate responsibility and stakeholder theory do not contravene the management and board of directors’ fiduciary duties to optimize shareholder’s wealth.
Milton Friedman would agree with this concept. Friedman advocated for free market. The aspect of free market implies that all players within the industry are at liberty to act according to their interests. As such, according to Friedman’s view upholding the interests of other parties or stakeholders denies a business the opportunity to act according to its interest, which is against the concept of free market that advocates for lack of interference in business activities[3]. In this scenario, stakeholders act as a hindrance to the business in terms of meeting its interests.
Edward Freeman would disagree with Johnson’s argument. Freeman was the founder of the stakeholder theory and believed that this theory could operate in social theory. Freeman believed that this concept could offer optimum value for stakeholders as it was aimed at upholding their interest.
Question 2
I agree with Steve Kelman’s assessment. Cost-benefits analysis argues that individuals should only adopt those measures whose benefits exceed their expenses/harms. In relation to this, the cost-benefit theory tends to monetize everything including human life, thereby leading to the incommensurability problem. Taking into consideration aspects of commensurability and comparability, Kelman’s critique/analysis can be considered appropriate. Kelman challenges the cost-benefit evaluation’s action of assigning or giving monetary values to commodities that are not marketable/non-marketed goods. This argument is right as issues such human life cannot be granted monetary values. The technique that is employed in surfacing the values that are assigned to nonmarketable commodities may not grasp the value that goods hold for individuals in an adequate manner.
According to Kelman, cost-benefit operates by creating equivalencies that exist between the items in questions, and the result is determined by mathematics/arithmetic. As such, the outcome obtained from such an operation may be surprising in case such outcomes are close calls or some of them are long division. Such an occurrence only serves to create confusion. The primary component of cost-benefit evaluation can be considered a consequentialist evaluation. In relation to this, cost-benefit analysis leads to a situation in which a judgment is assessment based on the benefits and costs that are associated with its consequences[4]. At the primary level, such an evaluation can include diverse goods that take into consideration human costs such as duties, rights and environmental costs. In this way, the cost-benefit analysis happens to be incompatible with the ethical frameworks as it can lead to flawed outcomes.
Cost-benefit analysis can be considered sustainable. This concept can inform opportunity cost in offers a systematic procedure for monetizing, calculating and comparing economic benefits and costs that are associated with certain processes, regulations and actions. Some other concepts that can be used as complements to cost-benefit analysis are opportunity cost, cost of intangible assets and cost of externalities. For businesses, opportunity cost happens to be the best concept.
Question 3
The Ford Pinto’s case, which involved the explosion of Ford Pinto as a result of a defective fuel system, can be addressed using the Hosmer Model/Framework for of moral assessment. In order for a party achieve an effective completion of a moral issue, such a party should ensure determine the economic consequences, legal requirements and ethical duties that are associated with a given action[5]. Taking into consideration the aspect of economic consequences, the action of Ford’s management resulted into economic gains to the company. The firm’s management acted in accordance to the principle of cost-benefit analysis in that it focused on an action whose economic gains exceeded its costs. By moving ahead to manufacture Ford Pinto vehicles, the company generated more revenues. On the other hand, the company could have not realized these economic gains in it had heeded to the engineers’ advice. Heeding to such advice meant that the company was to spend more on improving the Ford Pinto’s gas tank[6]. Such an undertaking could have led to more costs than benefits, thereby disobeying the principle of cost-benefit analysis. Ford’s management failed to adhere to the legal requirement that all vehicles that were manufactured by then (1972) to meet the 20mph test, so that by 1973 all vehicles could meet 30mph[7]. Despite the Ford Pinto failing to meet this requirement, the company’s management went ahead to manufacture these vehicles, thereby contravening he law. Ethical duty is an obligation that is owed by a party to another party within the same society. In relation to this, the Ford Company owned members of the public a duty to ensure their safety when using the company’s vehicles. The company should have ensured that their vehicles are fitted with proper gas tanks that cannot expose individuals to risks such as fire or explosions. Despite the organization’s management being notified by the firm’s engineers about the default associated with Ford Pinto, the management went ahead to the production of those cars for next six years[8]. In this manner, the company’s management failed to act in accordance to their ethical obligation.
Question 4
In this case, there are several pressures and conflicts. The first conflict involves me and the Multi-Limb Tech. In case I decide to make the public aware of the defects associated with the company’s top selling product, I risk losing my job. Besides, my action can lead to the company losing its revenues. The second conflict involves the company and the local medicinal board that endorses its products. Multi-Limb Tech is pressured to cooperate with the board or risk being defamed[9]. As such, the company has to engage in corruptive measure such as issuing bribes, which are disguised as donation to the company. The third conflict involves Multi-Limb Tech and the public. It is the ethical duty of the company to protect its patients/clients. The last conflict is between the local medicinal board and public. It is the ethical duty of this board to ensure that manufacturers deliver safe products to the public.
I would ask myself the following questions: Have I identified the issue correctly? How would I have defined the problem if I were on the other side of the fence? What is my intention in making my decision? How does my intention compare with the possible results? Whom could my judgment injure?[10]
The legal issue in this case is not ethical. The endorsement of Multi-Limb Tech’s product by the local medicinal board has a superficial appearance of being legal. However, this action is illegal as the board is aware of the default in Multi-Limb Tech’s product.
The company can act rightly and continue to make earning by informing the public about the benefits and harms of its product. In this manner, the company shall have created awareness about this product’s default[11]. Being that this product attracts many buyers, consumers that will purchase it will have acted according to their interests. Therefore, the company will not be blamed for any harm associated with its product.
[1] Carroll, Archie. “Ethical Challenges for Business in the New Millennium: Corporate Social Responsibility and Models Management Morality.” Business Ethics Quarterly 10, no.1 (2000): 34-42.
[2] Freeman, Edward. “The Politics of Stakeholder Theory: Some Future Directions.” Business Ethics Quarterly 4, no.4 (1994): 410-421.
[3] Carroll, Archie & Shabana, Kareem. “The Business Case for Corporate Social Responsibility: A Review of Concepts, Research and Practice.” International Journal of Management Review, (2010): 105
[4] Donaldson, Thomas, & Dunfee, Thomas. “When Ethics Travel: The Promise and Peril of Global Business Ethics.” California Management Review 41, no.4 (1999): 45-63
[5] Donaldson, Thomas. “Values in Tension: Ethics Away from Home.” Harvard Business Review, 4-12
[6] Danley, John. “Polishing Up the Pinto: Legal Liability, Moral Blame, and Risk.” Business Ethics Quarterly 15, no.2 (2005): 205-236.
[7] Becker, Paul & Bruce, Alan. “The Pinto Legacy: The Community as an Indirect Victim of Corporate Deviance.” Justice professional 12, no.3 (2000): 305
[8] Jones, Kristen & Geller, David. “Beyond the Business Case: An Ethical Perspective of Diversity Training.”Human Resource Management 52, no.1 (2013):55-74
[9] Porter, Michael & Kramer, Mark. “How to Reinvent Capitalism-and Unleash a Wave of Innovation and Grow.” Harvard Business Review, (2009): 63-79
[10] City of San Diego Office of Ethics and Integrity. “ Nash’s 12 Questions.”
In our lives, music serves many purposes such as a source of consolation, refreshment, and entertainment among many others. The melody is most of the time produced by various instrument accompaniments played by different people. This means that, people have a certain liking of specific instruments over others exemplified through what they specifically know to play. Guitar is one of the most frequently used musical accompaniment instruments, which is a clear indication of its popularity. This discussion provides an analysis as well as reflection on my current guitar playing abilities.
Practical plan
I developed an interest to learn guitar after meeting several people playing it on the streets. The emotions and the feelings of listening to the siren melody triggered my quest to begin training. The song they played on the guitar still lingers into my mind. They were cool and charming. Nevertheless, despite not having prior knowledge in guitar, I used to play other instruments such as piano and flute. I have attained grade three and seven in playing piano and flute respectively. This experience actually gave me an advantage compared to other people that have never played any instruments. I have some grasps of music theory and this will be an added advantage to me when learning to play guitar. I love to listen to music varieties but most often I would prefer rock, jazz, and country music. These genres of music make me feel relaxed and at peace because of their smooth and sometime rocky melodies. Therefore, combining my prowess in music and in music will go a greater mile in making master playing guitar quicker.
Motivations of people to pursue their career choices differ from one to another. My motivation to study music in this semester is to learn how to play many instruments in my life. I have an affinity to music and knowing more skills and knowledge about the area will enable me realize my quest. I also want to experience the same feeling as other people who play the instrument do.
The reason why I am studying guitar is to gain skills so that it becomes easier for me to practice on more songs on my own in future. I believe that, I will be able to understand deeply the techniques of playing the guitar so that, I can learn many songs. Even though I have no ambitions of playing in a band, if this opportunity comes, I would think about it in future. However, my major goal is just to know and be among those people that know how to play a guitar without any assistance from anyone.
The roadmap of how I am going to Achieve these aims
To learn how to play guitar will require me to come up with a clear guideline or rather roadmap that will guide me. I must create time to train as well as study other courses. I will practice guitar at home every week after classes. This will enable me to revise what I have learned in class during class sessions. I will also practice during my spare time. A number of my friends can play guitar and therefore they will train me.
Tasks and goals
I will set clear goals and vision based on SMART (Specific, Measurable, and Attainable. Retainable and time bound)
Daily practice session at home with my trainer
Listening to various blues and R n B band jazz music to learn more on the tunes and melodies of guitar
Set up a plan that will guide me towards its achievement
By the end of the first week, I should have gained deeper knowledge about the guitar and playing techniques
Historical, social and technical knowledge
My favorite songs are blues and most of the time, I have practiced to play guitar with this genre of songs. When listening to blues, it requires full attention to get the message (Coelho, 2003). The instrument tones and melody are also tuned differently as the songs proceed. There are some levels that the pitch of the song goes high and again goes low and moderate. As a guitarist, it is important that I make these adjustments to ensure that the tunes and the melody sound nice (Campbell, 2008).
Various categories of blues such as electric and delta are distinguishable by the tones of the guitar. Blues is one of the most loved music genres that traces its roots in African American communities that lived in the Deep South of US in the 19th century. The genre was derived from the spirituals, work, folk and chants from European (Govenar, 2008).
I have listened to various blues composed and sung by various artists. One of the songs I have listened to is a sub-genre of R&B named ‘Unfaithful’ by Rihanna. The song was composed by Shaffer Ne-Yo Smith and was produced by the Star Gates (Bream, 2011). The song is in Rihanna’s second album of Girl like me composed and released in 2006 (Komara, 2006). It talks about a woman who is regretting of cheating her husband. It has been received with mixed reactions from various quarters, with some criticizing it while others praising its lyrics and powerful balladry (Chappell, 2014).
Another song that I listened to was ‘one of the brightest stars’ by James Blunt. The other song that I learned on the third day was for James Blunt named “give me some love”. The song is very calm with very clear guitar lyrics (Chappell, 2014). The guitar is well adjusted and it has various tunes including, bass and soprano that blend and make the song appealing to listen to.
Through the training session, I got to learn about the many forms of blue guitars. Therefore, training guitar is an event that evolves. It is r important that one identifies specific techniques, patterns to follow, and notes to use in the specific song rhythm. One is required to tune the guitar to an open chord before opening. The guitar is tuned to the open chord such as E major or G major and then to produce a sound, it is struck by a glass or a mental slide to change chords.
Another style that I was trained or learned during the training session was the picking style that manifests in both fretted and slide guitar styles. For emphasis of the rhythm, the guitar is thumped out in a steady manner on the bass notes on the guitar low strings. This is done simultaneously or in turns using the thumb. Finger picking on the upper strings leads to sound of chords, fills, and melodic riffs that are heard from the songs.
Slides are also used to play chords. The slides are moved from one point to another. Most of the chords in this song are composed of major and minor triads; dominant 7th chords also known as triads with the other flatted and jazz chords (Chappell, 2014). Many of these songs used blue scale in their melodies and in their composition as well as their improvised solos. Listening to these songs not only enabled me to understand the various tones and melodies but as well to set the guitar to sound in a particular way. The training was somehow complex, especially when it came to internalizing the various notes on the guitar.
The log
The practice was an awesome experience for me. The practice session took a duration of one week. All these trainings or practices were recorded in my dairy book to ensure that I remember the various events and experiences at those particular moments. I practice in the evening after the classes and every time I have free time. I practiced to play guitar at home where my fellow colleagues that had already known how to play it joined me. On a typical evening, I practice for an hour. In most occasions, the practice commenced in the evenings at 5pm to 6pm.
On the first day, I practiced how to set a guitar to be able to produce certain melodies. Setting a guitar may seem to be an easy task, but my colleagues assisted me in the same. Nevertheless, after around 10 minutes, I was able to make this guitar and set it correctly for use. The trainer then took me through the other keys such as G and E factors and how they were fine-tuned. Other aspects that I was taught on this first day were on the parts of the guitar and their roles.
On the second day, I listened to one of my favorite RnBs “unfaithful’ by Rihanna. The aim of listening was to identify the way guitar was used in the song to add more spice and melody to the song. Towards the end of the music, I learned to play the guitar just the way it played in the DVD. The third day, I listened to ‘one of the brightest star’ by James Blunt. The guitar melodies in this song were clear and exciting. At the end of the session, I went through guitar practice to accumulate practical knowledge.
The fourth day, I trained/practiced the third song by James Blunt named “give me some love”, which is one of the favorite songs that had good chords. The guitar in the song is clear and thrilling. This was one of my best days on the training; it was a day full of fans and good moments. I also recoded some significant improvement in the way I fine-tuned and played the guitar on this specific song. I came to realize that I have the capabilities and all it takes to become the pro I wanted. I could at least make some steps and efforts to produce an organized sound. I came to the realization that my skills in piano played an instrumental role in my learning process at the facility.
References
. Campbell, T. (2008).Popular Music in America: And the Beat Goes on; Cengage Learning, 3rd ed..
Holding onto Old Strategies and Manufacturing Techniques
Eastman Kodak: Holding onto Old Strategies and Manufacturing Techniques – Research Proposal
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LSI Assignment Guidelines
Developing a willingness and ability to engage in self-reflection is a critical leadership skill that is not easily learned yet which reaps many rewards. The LSI enables you to examine your own unique way of thinking and how it influences your behavior.
Your Assignment:
Complete (on your own) the LSI according to the procedure outlined here, so that you end up with your “Life Styles Circumplex” profile: 12 “personal thinking style” scores, one score for each section of the circumplex.
Write a 3–5 page paper examining and explaining your LSI results. There are more details in the table below.
LSI Style Interpretations: Go to the LSI1 Results page, find your circumplex profile, and click on the circumplex “slice” of one of the styles. The site will bring you to a customized interpretation of the style you clicked on. Click on each of the 12 “slices” to see all of the customized style description pages.
How to Use the Inventory
Click here to go to the Life Styles Inventory (LSI) exercise.
Follow the instructions given on the LSI Website.
The content of your LSI paper must include a copy of your LSI results (circumplex and chart) and the following written sections:
Section
Points
Description
Title page Title of your applied research paper, your name, e-mail address, course number and title, instructor, and date.
Personal Thinking Styles 25
Identify your primary and backup thinking styles: What are your “primary” (highest percentile score) and “backup” (second highest percentile) personal thinking styles as shown in your circumplex? Discuss how your primary and backup personal styles are manifested in your life and work (see the LSI Self Development Guide online). Using the style interpretations in the LSI Guide, describe the styles and give your perceptions about the results. Do you agree or disagree with them and why?
Identify your limiting style: Identify and illustrate one style you think might be working against you to reduce your overall effectiveness. Name the style you have chosen, make a few remarks about why you are choosing this style as limiting your professional effectiveness in organizations.
Select one behavior associated with this style that you think you would like to change and the difference it will make. Be sure to support your interpretation with examples, etc.
LSI Style Interpretations: Go to the LSI1 Results page, find your circumplex profile, and click on the circumplex “slice” of one of the styles. The site will bring you to a customized interpretation of the style you clicked on. Click on each of the 12 “slices” to see all of the customized style description pages.
Impact on Management Style 35
What impact do your personal styles have on your management style? Explore and assess the impact of your personal styles on your effectiveness as a manager in terms of the four functions of management:
a. Planning;
b. Organizing;
c. Leading; and
d. Controlling.
If you are currently not a manager, assume you are and predict your effectiveness as such.
Genesis of Personal Style 35 Critically evaluate and explain on how you developed the personal styles that were revealed in your LSI. What role, for example, did family relationships, school, organizational memberships, culture, etc. have in shaping your personal style?
Conclusion and Reflection 25
Think about your LSI results and your responses to the above questions. Summarize any concluding comments. Close your paper with a statement of at least one question or goal you hope your work in MGMT591 will help you to address and comment with a few sentences to describe the value of this exercise to your personal and professional development.
Please note: The LSI Self-Development Guide is integrated into the LSI1 Participant account, and is available after you complete the LSI Survey and have access to your results. In-depth and personalized style descriptions can be found by clicking on the style “slices” of the circumplex. For example, if you would like to learn more about the Humanistic-Encouraging style (Style 1), you simply click on the circumplex “slice” for that style. The same goes for the other 11 styles.
You can find the Challenge of Change and the Self-Improvement Plan information by using two of the additional links that become available in you LSI online account after the survey is complete. These links are “The Challenge of Change” and “Your Self-Improvement Plan.” Good luck with the exercise!
LSI Grading Rubric:
WRITTEN LSI PAPER RUBRIC
Criteria
Failed to Meet Minimum Standards
Met Minimum Standards
(60% = 72 pts) D
Satisfactory
(70% = 84 pts) C
Good
(80 % = 96 pts) B
Superior
(90% = 108 pts) A
Part I: Personal Thinking Styles
(25 Points)
Results not apparent
0
Mentions style names; does not describe; does not evaluate
17.0 Defines styles; reflects barely adequate information to acquaint the reader with the style’s application
19.5 Contains a focus and provides sufficient detail to set the stage for the analysis but may not support evaluative statements
22.0 Defines styles; validates results; supports impressions; complete information
25.0
Part II: Impact On Management Style
(35 Points) No managerial impact apparent
0 Gives examples of behaviors, but does not relate them to the managment functions or the personal styles
21.5 Mentions the management functions with examples or relates to the personal styles, but not both
24.5 Loosely connects management functions and styles; uses vague examples or examples lacking depth of application
28.0 Shows clear connection between styles and their impact on the management styles; uses specific examples
35.0
Part III: Genesis of Personal Styles
(35 Points) None provided
0 Too shallow; insufficient depth; provides only one example to support development
21.5 Provides a review of 2–3 supporting experiences; does not relate them to style development
24.5 Loosely connects personal experiences to style results; uses vague examples lacking depth of application
28.0 Gives a clear and focused analysis; uses several specific examples; directly relates experiences to how styles were formed
35.0
Part IV: Conclusion and Reflection
(25 Points) No reflective statement or summary offered
0 Perfunctory effort at drawing lessons from the assignment
17.0 One key lesson; no other insights offered
19.5 Good faith effort in discussing the lessons from the assignment; some insights are included
22.0 Well presented insights on how the assignment influenced personal, academic, and professional development; includes statement regarding MGMT591
25.0
THE SURVEY IS ATTACHED
SAMPLE ANSWER
Holding onto Old Strategies and Manufacturing Techniques
Eastman Kodak: Holding onto Old Strategies and Manufacturing Techniques – Research Proposal
Eastman Kodak is U.S. based technology company, whose main focus is the imaging solutions for individuals and businesses. Its headquarter is in Rochester, New York, and was founded in 1888 by George Eastman. It deals in a range of products under the same line of imaging solutions, including functional printing, packaging, professional imaging services, and graphic communications. Kodak is a leading player in the imaging industry, with other able competitors such as Fujifilm as well as a score of other firms. While its track record is commendable, Kodak is criticized for being slow in adopting new technological changes. More so, its current CEO is being faulted for not ably addressing the basic internal problem of the company: having an organizational behavior that is bent on old manufacturing techniques, as well as maintaining high operational costs. In this case, I am acting in the capacity of the Organization’s consultant.
The main problem that Eastman Kodak has been facing for years is the organizational culture that refuses to embrace current manufacturing techniques, so that it does not compete ably in the international market, which is flooded with technological gadgets. In the contemporary world, technology has driven the production processes of companies to another level, and all entities are subscribing to this change. However, Kodak has kept hold of most of its old manufacturing techniques, and has not implemented the new changes that have so far emerged. It is projected that since the technology market is one which is fast-developing, a company that does not conform to the current manufacturing and management techniques is sure to be left behind, and receive a considerable drop in its market share. Thus, the research question for this scenario is: what is the impact of a poor organizational behavior on performance?: A case study of Eastman Kodak.
Eastman Kodak, as has been previously mentioned, was once a market leader in the imaging industry that steered clear of considerable competition. However, with the emergence of new methods of manufacturing, the company has not be able to act swiftly to completely integrate those new techniques. This is a problem that can see the company into total ruins, owing to the rate at which new technology is being introduced each day. Basically, the company has a poor organizational behavior, where it holds on to the outdated styles and techniques, instead of installing new ones. As a consultant, I plan to create an extensive awareness about the importance of the new technologies. Additionally, I plan to identify key layers in the market, and study what they are using. This way, I will provide a realistic suggestion to the company’s management, so that the identified techniques can be implemented. This will initiate a change process, which is expected to begin with the awareness campaign, followed by a recommendation of needed technological advancements, and then organizing the procedure or installation and implementation.
The TOC (Total cost of ownership) that my topic is related to is return on information technology. This TOC is relevant in that the company (Kodak), needs to adopt technology in almost all its processes. As a consultant, this TCO will be helpful in determining the current customer needs, and tailor goods that meet the require taste and preference.
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Have you ever heard the expression that someone is “right-brained” or “left-brained”? This notion implies that there are multiple ways of viewing the world or of perceiving reality. How you perceive the world may influence your thinking and perspective in ways that go beyond the obvious. For a researcher, it is critical to recognize one’s worldview and the perspectives that derive from it. One means of doing this is to conduct a personal inventory.
Refer to the handout “Your Personal Worldview Worksheet.” After you have completed the worksheet, post a statement by Day 3 explaining your worldview to your colleagues and Instructor. Follow the worksheet’s instructions for drafting your personal statement, and consider how your worldview aligns with the worldviews described in this week’s readings from the course text, Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches. Be sure to incorporate ideas and concepts from the readings about practitioner and professional doctorates as well. Your entire statement should be 2 to 3 paragraphs long, or range between 400–600 words.
Material A
Linking Theory to Your Business Problem Statement
DDBA 8427 Applied Research Methods – Qualitative and Quantitative
Linking Theory to Your Business Problem Statement
Review the Discussion and Application instructions for this week in the online classroom. This handout will guide you through the process of applying a quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods approach to your Problem Statement.
If you do not already have one, begin by creating a template for an APA-formatted paper. Review the APA Publication Manual and note the sections pertaining to the required cover page, abstract, introduction, text of the paper, conclusion, and references. Also note the elements related to running heads and page headers. You may wish to save this template for future papers.
Each of the numbered sections below corresponds to a section within the main text of your paper; remember that an abstract and introduction will precede this section and that a conclusion will follow it. Follow the order presented, and organize your responses to the questions so that your writing has a logical flow. Incorporate references to the course text and any other sources that you deem appropriate. Keep in mind that direct quotations should be somewhat limited, as should instances of paraphrasing. The majority of your paper should reflect your own thoughts and only rely upon outside resources for structure, reinforcement, and validation.
I. Phenomenon for Research – State the phenomenon that you intend to research in broad terms. Examples: interactions between managers and staff; impact of mission statements on financial decisions; strategic aspects of an organizational unit; disparities between national and international planning in a given endeavor.
II. Your Problem Statement – Introduce your Problem Statement and illustrate its linkage to the phenomenon. If you need to revise your Problem Statement from DDBA 8160: Business Strategy and Innovation at this time, you may do so.
III. Your Problem Statement in a Worldview – Refer to Table 1.1 in your course text (Creswell, p. 6). Select three research tendencies, each from one of the four worldviews listed. Write a 1- to 3-sentence statement for each worldview that conceptualizes the phenomenon and your Problem Statement within that view. You may first need to do some brief research on concise definitions of the worldviews listed. Example:
The question of how closely financial decisions and organizational missions are aligned in small enterprises needs further investigation (phenomenon). It is theorized that financial decision makers in small manufacturing firms align their financial decisions with organizational missions less than 10% of the time, as measured by an investigation of the financial decisions of a sample population (problem statement). This is a Theory Vertification study under the category of a Postpositivist worldview.
IV. Alignment of Research Methods – Match each of your statements to a method. You should have one quantitative approach, one qualitative, and one mixed method. For each statement, list the method and outline how you might conduct the study within the paradigm of that research approach. This is meant to be a preliminary and general sketch of a potential approach; you will likely expand on and expound upon it with greater precision and clarity by the end of the course. Example:
In order to conduct a mixed methods study of the alignment of financial decisions to organizational mission in small manufacturing firms, this study will collect internal and external financial statements from a random sample of 200 manufacturers with fewer than 200 employees. The financial data will be correlated to the organizational missions. Random chief financial officers will be selected for surveys and structured interviews. The financial data and compiled responses will be compared to paint a picture of the degree of alignment between financial decisions and organizational missions. It is posited that the statistical relationship between the dependent and independent variables will be reinforced by the surveys and structured interview findings.
A. Quantitative Approach
B. Qualitative Approach
C. Mixed Methods Approach
In your conclusion, summarize your proposed approaches, and discuss their similarities and differences. Be sure to include 3–5 questions for further consideration or areas for colleague and Instructor input and suggestions. Review your paper for APA formatting, and be sure that it contains all of the required elements. Then, return to the online classroom for posting and peer review (Discussion area), and for submission instructions (Application area).
References
Creswell, J. W. (2009). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Material# B
Your Personal Worldview Worksheet
DDBA 8427 Applied Research Methods – Qualitative and Quantitative
Your Personal Worldview Worksheet
Record your answers to the following questions. You will synthesize your answers into a complete statement at the end, so feel free to include limited personal information in the chart below. You should exclude anything personal or confidential that you wish to keep from the synthesized statement at the end, however. The chart below is for your own reference and is meant to be shared with colleagues or your Instructor.
Questions Responses
Think about your educational experiences. How do you learn best?
Think about your information-gathering and investigation skills. How do you search out answers to questions (e.g., about your health or as an informed consumer)?
Think about your interpersonal communication skills. How do you attempt to influence the behavior of others (e.g., through persuasion or interpersonal negotiation)?
Think about your problem-solving skills. How do you approach challenges (personal or professional)?
Think about your self-identity. Describe your personal background and experiences, including your cultural background and experiences.
Think about your professional persona. Describe your professional background and experiences (education, work, etc).
Think about your self-identity and its relationship to your professional practice. How do you think your personal, cultural, and professional experiences have influenced your personal beliefs, values, and worldview? How have they influenced your professional interests and the way in which you will approach and conduct research?
Think about how you would present yourself to others in an executive summary or “elevator pitch” (wherein you only have the time that it takes to ride an elevator to present an idea to the person riding with you). Based on the above information, summarize how you see the world in 3–5 sentences.
Based on this exercise, compose a statement reflecting your worldview for the benefit of your colleagues and Instructor. The first part of your statement will include the last segment from the table above, edited to remove any personal information you do not wish to share. The second part will explain how your worldview aligns with the worldviews described in the course text, Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches. Your entire statement should be comprised of 2 paragraphs and range between 400–600 words.
Please be advice of the message from my professor: Thanks My feedback to you and the class is to avoid the use of Creswell.
Creswell will not be seen cited in this class, I do not take off points the first week on this matter so, you are good for now. However, ensure you are using your APA manual as you make your reference, this is where most of the point deduction will take place as I take this piece very seriously.
SAMPLE ANSWER
Personal Worldview and Research Mindset in Business
Environment has influenced my way or perception of the world. Those who I interact with, my teachers and strangers, have had so much impact in my life. My guiding factor is ethics, which always directs my decisions in all aspects of my life.
Material A
Linking Theory to your Business Problem Statement
I. Phenomenon for Research – State the phenomenon that you intend to research in broad terms. The effects of Human Resource Management Practices in an Organization
II. Your Problem Statement –
The typical Human Resource Management practices are staff recruitment and selection, training and development, and compensation and Performance appraisal. These practices have been found to be linked to the level of organizational performance. However, how these factors affect organizational performance varies from one organization to another. Indeed, the literature reviewed indicates that there is no uniformly acceptable standard on Human Resource Management Practices effect on organizational performance (Abeysekera, 2007).
III. Your Problem Statement in a Worldview –
When making a decision on training organizational needs, one needs to first know what kind of training and mode will add value to the organization, thus, on job or off job training. Only off-the-job training improves performance. Effective training not only equips employees with most of the knowledge and skills required to accomplish jobs, but it also helps achieve overall organizational objectives by contributing to the satisfaction and productivity of the employees.
Employee compensation packages are a prerequisite for companies that want to attract and retain high –caliber, skilled staff. Proper management of compensation is a good source of employee motivation and a good source to measure organization performance. A well designed compensation plan gives an organization a competitive advantage, it helps to attract the best job candidates, motivates them to perform to their maximum potential, and retain them for long.
Performance appraisal also influences other HRMP such as recruitment and selection, training and development, compensation and employee relation, and retention. As performance appraisal leads to pay raise, promotion, and training, it is assumed that better performance appraisal can have impact on organizational performance. Performance appraisal means evaluating an employee’s current and/or past performance relative to his or her performance standards (Jike, 2003).
Alignment of Research Methods –
The study will utilize descriptive research design, which aims to establish how the independent variable relates with performance variables. This being a case study, the target population will be 215 permanent employees. Random sampling method will be used to select respondent of sample size representing 39% of the population. Primary data will be collected through self- administered questionnaire. Data will be analyzed using two levels of analysis: descriptive statistics describing frequency distribution, mean and standard deviation; regression analysis, which was used to establish the strength of the relationship between Human Resource Management practices and Performance. The result of the study was expected to show the effect of the independent variable studied on dependent variables (Bergh & Ketchen, 2009).
Conclusion
Reliability is the degree of consistency with which an instrument measures the attributes for which it is designed. One type of questionnaire will be administered to the identified sample. Ten employees will be identified representing the strata’s for pilot test of the questionnaire. This will give the researcher an opportunity to identify flaws in understanding whether questions and directions are clear to the subject. The main reason for testing the questionnaire is to ensure that it fits as an instrument in the primary data collection process. Data collection bias will be minimized by use of a trained research assistant who will administer the questionnaires, and standardized conditions such as exhibit of similar personal attributes to all respondents. The subjects will be requested not to write their names on the questionnaire to ensure confidentiality
The research questions are:
What are the effects of staff recruitment practice on CRF performance?
How does training and development affect CRF performance?
How does compensation affect staff performance at CRF?
What are the effects of staff performance appraisal practices to CRF performance?
How does HRMP affect Employee outcome?
Does the joint effect of HRMP and employee outcome affect CRF performance
References
Abeysekera, R. (2007) The impact of Human Resource Management Practices on marketing executive turnover of companies in Sri Lanka. Contemporary Management Research 3 (3).
Bergh, D. D., & Ketchen, D. J. (2009). Research methodology in strategy and management. Bingley: Emerald Group Publishing Limited.
Word Limit: 2,000 words (with 10% plus or minus leeway)
Percentage of marks awarded for module: This assignment is worth 50% of the total marks for the module
Constructive critical analysis, introduction, conclusion •Relevant, accurate content, demonstrating research, as required by the assessment task.
•Coherent and clear discussion of the different forms of business
•Clear comparison between financial and management accounting
•Critical discussion of the different sources of finance 70%
Referencing Style •Full in-text referencing using the Harvard citation style.
•Structured reference list or bibliography using the Harvard referencing method 10%
Content, style, relevance, originality Clear demonstration of rigorous research from recognised authoritative sources. Audience focus; report format 10%
Introduction, conclusion and recommendation •Coherent and concise introduction, conclusion and clear recommendations
10%
Assignment Task:
Mr and Mrs Swanson are thinking of starting a business enterprise. They have saved up some money from their 20 years in employment and have decided to produce and sell biscuits and chocolates. They expect this to be a lifelong investment with a plan for rapid growth and expansion.
They know that there are different forms of businesses, each with its own benefits and limitations, but are unsure of the best one to adopt. They also require the aid of an in-house accountant to help with their day-to-day management decisions, but also unsure if a management accountant would be preferable to a financial accountant.
Since this is a lifelong investment, with plans for expansion, they would also like to know the sources of finance available to them. They have come to your accounting practice for advice and guidance on these issues.
As an accountant, you are required to write a report to Mr and Mrs Swanson explaining the issues below:
• Explain the different forms of business units (sole proprietorship, partnership, limited company) available, highlighting the benefits and limitations of each (20 marks)
•Explain financial accounting and management accounting, highlighting the differences between the two strands of accounting (20 marks)
•Explain the sources of finance available to a business owner, making distinctions between internal and external sources, short-term and long-term sources, equity and debt (30 marks)
•Style, layout, format and relevance (5 marks)
•Introduction, conclusion and Recommendation (15 marks)
•Referencing – Harvard Style (10 marks)
Total marks for assignment: 100
Please inform your writer to completely adhere to instructions on how the report should be. Also, every content of report must conform to UK including Referencing because I am not study in America University.
The following shows the Marking Scheme:
Introduction 5%
Sole Proprietorship 5%
Partnerships 5%
Private Limited Company 5%
Public Limited Company 5%
Financial Accountant 10%
Management Accountant 10%
Internal vs External source of finance 10%
Short Term vs Long Term Finance 10%
Debt vs Equity 10%
conclusion and Recommendation 10%
Style, Layout,format relevance 5%
Referencing 10%
Total 100%
Percentage of marks awarded for module: This assignment is worth 50% of the total marks for the module
Assessment criteria Explanatory comments on the assessment criteria Maximum marks for each section
Constructive critical analysis, introduction, conclusion • Relevant, accurate content, demonstrating research, as required by the assessment task.
• Coherent and clear discussion of the different forms of business
• Clear comparison between financial and management accounting
• Critical discussion of the different sources of finance 70%
Referencing Style • Full in-text referencing using the Harvard citation style.
• Structured reference list or bibliography using the Harvard referencing method 10%
Content, style, relevance, originality Clear demonstration of rigorous research from recognised authoritative sources. Audience focus; report format 10%
Introduction, conclusion and recommendation • Coherent and concise introduction, conclusion and clear recommendations
10%
Mr. and Mrs. Swanson could incorporate a Sole Proprietorship, a Partnership, a Private Limited Liability Company or a Public Limited Liability Company as a business vehicle to implement their business idea of producing and selling biscuits and chocolates. Each of these types of business entities has their benefits and disadvantages. For example a sole proprietorship will give the two entrepreneurs a lot of control over the affairs of their business and will enable them to make faster business decisions. On the flipside the liability of the enterprise extends to their personal property. If the couple decides to incorporate either a Private Limited Liability Company or a Public Limited Liability Company they will be required to prepare at certain time periods financial statements in line with Company Act of the country. These include Income Statement, Balance Sheet, Cash flow statement, statements of changes in equity and notes to the financial statements in line with International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) or Generally Accepted Accounting Standards (GAAP). The documents are prepared in line with financial accounting requirements and are for external use. The couple could also prepare management accounts to aid them or their managers in planning, organizing, directing and controlling the operational activities of the company. Management accounts are however not mandatory documents by law unlike financial accounting documents. The couple has various sources from which they could get finances to implement their business idea. They could approach angel investors for equity financing, a bank for a loan, friends, relatives etc. for equity financing or loans. Each source has its benefits and disadvantages.
Introduction
Mr. and Mrs. Swanson are intending to go into the business of producing and selling biscuits and chocolates. They could undertake the business by incorporating various forms of business entities namely; Sole Proprietorship, Partnership, Private Limited Liability Company or Public Limited Liability Company. Each business entity type has benefits and drawbacks. It is the duty of the couple to decide in light of these drawbacks highlighted in this document which would be the most ideal type of business entity to undertake the business venture(BULL, NELSON and FISHER 2009). If the couple decides to incorporate a Private Limited Liability Company or a Public Limited Liability Company they will be required to abide by IFRS or GAAP guidelines as the company law and thus prepare annual reports using financial accounting practices. There are various sources of finance that the couple can use to raise funds. To implement the business idea, the couple could approach a lending institution for a loan or a line of credit. They could approach a venture capital fund, an angel investor, a friend, relative or resort to internal sources like selling private property to raise equity funds to implement the business idea (BULL, NELSON and FISHER 2009).
Starting a Business
In every sector of an economy of any country in the world, business entities are registered either as sole proprietors, partnerships, private limited liability companies or public limited liability companies. Mr. and Mrs. Swanson will have to choose whether to register their business in any of these forms. The main differences between these three types of business configurations relates to ownership structure, legal requirements and financing structure decisions among others (BULL, NELSON and FISHER 2009). The term “sole proprietorship” is somewhat misleading as the word “sole” might be interpreted to imply that only one individual is involved in the business. The reality is that a sole trader could have more than one person involved in it. In a sole proprietorship the main requirement is that only one individual is required to own a business entity. The person who owns the entity would be the main source of finance and is expected to be actively involved in its management (MASLIANKOA and MAISTRENKOA 2012). The main drawback is that sole proprietorship entities normally operate on an informal basis in that the private matters of the owner become part of the issues impacting on the business. For instance if the owner is sick the business stalls until he/she recovers. If the business is folded up, the creditors could auction the owner’s property that is unrelated to the entity to recover their money. There is no separation between the assets of the owner and those of the entity. The main benefit of this type of business is that decision making is done much faster than in other types of entities. The owners will have total control over the affairs of the company. Accounting information in a sole proprietorship is relatively straightforward and there is no specific piece of legislation that governs accounting arrangements (KIRTZKHALIA 2012).
Mr. and Mrs. Swanson could also undertake the business as a partnership. The only difference between a partnership and a sole proprietorship is that there is more than one owner in a partnership. It is important for partners in a partnership to agree among themselves the amount of financial resources each will contribute into the business venture before they start. It is also important for the partners to agree on the job responsibilities that each will bear and how many hours each will work (KIRTZKHALIA 2012). Partners must also agree on how they will share profits and losses at the end of each financial year. In many jurisdictions there are laws that govern partnerships. A partnership deed is normally signed to govern the agreements in some countries which are witnessed by an attorney (MASLIANKOA and MAISTRENKOA 2012). The main advantages of a partnership are that the partners are able to raise more capital than in a sole proprietorship and they share ideas on how to effectively manage the business thus making better decisions. The main disadvantage of this type of partnership is that liability for the partnership’s debts is shouldered by the partners as individuals. In the event of dissolution, creditors can auction personal assets of each partner to recover their money. The next business entity is a Private Limited Liability Company (BULL, NELSON and FISHER 2009). The main advantage of these types of entities is that they have a separate legal personality from their owners. These types protect owners from personal bankruptcy unlike in sole proprietorship or partnership discussed in the foregoing. The owners’ liability is only up to the agreed contribution paid at the start of the company and they are not obliged to add more funds in future if the company runs into financial problems. The main disadvantage is that the owners will be required to prepare financial statements in line with IFRS or GAAP depending on the standards used in the country. The entity will be subject to the company laws and will have to be governed in line with these laws. The level of control will be lower and decisions will not be made as fast as in previous types (MASLIANKOA and MAISTRENKOA 2012).
Lastly, the couple could incorporate a Public Limited Liability Company to implement their business ideas. This type will have a separate existence from its owners. Companies are either limited by shares or by guarantees. The term “limited liability” means that owners are allowed to finance their company up to a certain agreed amount of money. After the owners have contributed the agreed amount of money they cannot contribute any more funds even if the company lands into financial difficulties. To incorporate a Public Limited Liability Company the owners will have to register as a Private Limited Liability Company and then trade for a number of years before they can sell shares in the company to the public through the stock exchange. The benefits of incorporating a Public Limited Liability Company are many. First, the liability of the owners is up to the amount they have contributed and not more. In the event the company is to be liquidated, the creditors cannot sell the personal assets of the owners (BULL, NELSON and FISHER 2009). The owners of the company can also approach financial institutions or sell shares to the public in an initial public share offer through the stock exchange to get additional equity and debt funding since limited liability companies are subject to more public scrutiny which improves their credit rating. The main disadvantage is that owners cede control to management who may not have the same passion for the business. The management usually pursues short term interest to the detriment of long term sustainability of the company which is to the detriment of the owners. This is what is called the agency problem. The owners will have less control over the affairs of the business and decisions will be made much slowly and will be subject to public scrutiny (MASLIANKOA and MAISTRENKOA 2012).
Main Branches of accounting
The main branches of accounting that Mr. and Mrs. Swanson will have to understand and probably use depending on the type of business entity they choose to incorporate are financial accounting and management accounting. Management accounting is concerned with analyzing and providing information on cost to the management of a company to aid them in planning, organizing, directing, controlling and evaluating the operations of the company and making better decisions. It is basically accounting information prepared for managers and employees within an organization (BIRNBERG 2011). It is the process of identification, measurement, accumulation, analysis, preparation, interpretation and communication of accounting information that can be used by the management of a company to carry out their normal duties of planning, organizing, directing, controlling and evaluating of the business activities to ensure the organization achieves its strategic objectives (HASTE 2009). Management accounting is concerned with providing information to managers for use in planning, controlling and making better decisions to achieve business objectives. Management accounting is basically designed to provide information to people inside an organization i.e. managers and employees (BROCCARDO 2014).
Financial accounting on the other hand is concerned with providing information to people outside an organization and includes stockholders, creditors, government, investors, bankers, suppliers, customers etc. The information that management accounting provides enables an organization to be managed effectively whereas the information provided by financial accounting enables stakeholders to judge the past performance of an organization and make better decisions on how to engage in future (LEAUBY and WENTZEL 2012). Financial accounting provides information that is used by external parties such as bankers, creditors and other stakeholders whereas management accounting provides information that is used by managers and employees in an organization to better perform on their jobs. Financial accounting provides information that covers the entire organization whereas management accounting provides information on smaller business units or individual departments, in addition to information on the entire company. Financial accounting focuses on the history of a company whereas management accounting focuses on the future and present state of the company (JESSWEIN 2011).
Financial accounting is supposed to be in a given format that ensures comparability with similar organizations in the industry whereas management accounting has no specific format and is in line with the information requirements of the management of a company. Management accounting information assists the management to plan, record and control activities whereas financial accounting assists stakeholders, bankers, suppliers among others in making investment decisions and for credit analysis. The information provided by financial accounting is quantitative and monetary whereas the information provided by management accounting is both quantitative and qualitative that is both monetary and also non-monetary in nature (MASLIANKOA and MAISTRENKOA 2012). Financial accounting reporting is done at predetermined times in a year like annually or semi-annually whereas management accounting reports could be produced daily, weekly or monthly depending on the needs and directives of the management of a company. Financial accounting reports are mandatory for limited liability companies as per the company laws in a country whereas there is no legal requirement for companies to produce management accounting information. A company can decide not to prepare management accounting information and it will not be breaking any law in the country (HASTE 2009). Financial accounting is done in line with stipulated accounting standards which could be International Financial Reporting Standards or Generally Accepted Accounting Procedures whereas management accounting information is prepared according to the directions of the management of a company. The main objective of financial accounting is to disclose the end results in a trading period and depict the financial condition of a company at a given date normally at the end of the financial year. Management accounting on the other hand has the objective of providing information to management that will help them make better decisions to achieve the objectives of the organization (HASTE 2009).
Sources of Finance
To implement the business idea, Mr. and Mrs. Swanson will have to identify several sources of finance. This is because new businesses need start-up capital to invest in long term assets and use as working capital to start operations. There are many sources of finance to a business entity that it can utilize. These sources could be internal or external to the business entity. Internal sources of finance basically refer to finance generated from inside a company whereas external sources of finance refers to finance generated from outside sources of a company. There are many internal sources of finance available for a company to utilize (MASLIANKOA and MAISTRENKOA 2012). The company can negotiate for a longer credit period with its suppliers. In this case the company will take longer to pay for goods supplied than before. For instance if it was paying its suppliers in 15 days from the date they supply goods and services it can negotiate to pay after 30 days. This will increase the amount of funds available to carry out business activities.
Alternatively a company can improve its debt collection methods to ensure it collects its debts sooner than before (BYRD, ROSS and GLACKIN 2013). For instance, if it was collecting its debts in 30 days it can reduce the debt collection days to 15. This method increases the amount of cash available for trading and enhances the bottom line which increases equity and is a long term source of finance. A company can also sell some of its assets such as land to raise capital or lease it to rent payers (LUTTER 2013). There are instances where a company has non-strategic assets such as underutilized land or land it does not use at all. This asset can be sold or leased out to generate cash for trading or to acquire strategic assets. Another internal source of finance is by ploughing back profits into the business instead of paying dividends to shareholders. This can be done in full or partially and of course with the permission of the shareholders. This is a long term source of finance since the company could retain part of the profits as retained earnings at the end of each year. These earnings increase the equity component in the balance sheet (LUTTER 2013).
External sources of finance include approaching banks for debt finance in form of loans, overdrafts, trade finance, or lines of credit. Loans from banks are normally short term sources of finance but if the company can arrange for lines of credit instead of an overdraft then it can enjoy long term sources of finance to finance its operations. This is debt financing and the company will be required to pay regular interest to the bank. If a company is a limited liability company it could raise share capital from capital markets through an initial public share offer. This is equity funding and is a long term source of finance. The company will be required to pay dividends at the end of a given year (CHANDRA and FEALEY 2009). In subsequent years the company can offer rights issues which basically is a way of raising more equity finance from the existing shareholders by offering them more shares. Other external sources of finance include bank overdrafts, raising money from friends or family members. These methods on whether the funds are short term or long term, debt or equity mainly depend on the arrangement with providers of these funds. A company can also approach angel investors who tend to provide long term finance in form of an equity stake in the company. There are also venture capital funds that the company can approach to get equity financing mainly in exchange for a stake in the company (BYRD, ROSS and GLACKIN 2013).
Conclusion and Recommendation
From the foregoing, Mr. and Mrs. Swanson will have to incorporate a business entity to implement their business idea. The decision on the type of business entity that they will incorporate will be influenced by among other factors the amount of control they will want to have over the business affairs, the amount of liability they will need to shoulder, the level of scrutiny on the affairs of the business they will be willing to allow and the amount of capital they want to raise among other determinants (KIRTZKHALIA 2012). The couple will have to understand the main branches of accounting and its impact on their operations. Private Limited Liability entities and Public Limited Liability Companies must use financial accounting to prepare annual reports for eternal stakeholders. This is a requirement by the authorities. Failure to do that could lead to legal action being taken on the company with dire consequences. There are many sources of finance that the company could resort to raise funds. Start-up finances are mainly in forms of either debt or equity. Each form has a bearing on the future cash flows of the company. It is the duty of the two to decide which form to resort to
References
BIRNBERG, J.G.,(2011). Robert N. Anthony: A Pioneering Thinker in Management
Accounting. Accounting Horizons, 25(3), pp. 593-602.
BROCCARDO, L.,( 2014). Management Accounting System in Italian Smes: Some Evidences
and Implications1. Advances in Management and Applied Economics, 4(4), pp. 1-16.
BULL, N., NELSON, S. and FISHER, R., (2009). CHARACTERISTICS OF BUSINESS
OWNERSHIP: OVERVIEW FOR PASS-THROUGH ENTITIES AND EVIDENCE ON S CORPORATE OWNERSHIP FROM LINKED DATA*. Washington: National Tax Association.
BYRD, K., ROSS, L.W. and GLACKIN, C.E.W., (2013). A Preliminary Causal Analysis of
Small Business Access to Credit during Economic Expansion and Contraction. Journal of Applied Finance and Banking, 3(5), pp. 77-84.
CHANDRA, A. and FEALEY, T., (2009). BUSINESS INCUBATION IN THE UNITED
STATES, CHINA AND BRAZIL: A COMPARISON OF ROLE OF GOVERNMENT, INCUBATOR FUNDING AND FINANCIAL SERVICES. International Journal of Entrepreneurship, 13, pp. 67-86.
HASTE, D., (2009). MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING -FINANCIAL STRATEGY. Financial Management, , pp. 54-55.
JESSWEIN, K.,( 2011). PENGUIN MANUFACTURING: UNSEEN LINKS BETWEEN MANAGERIAL ACCOUNTING, GAAP, AND CREDIT ANALYSIS. Arden: Jordan Whitney Enterprises, Inc.
LEAUBY, B.A. and WENTZEL, K., (2012). Linking Management Accounting and Finance: Assessing Student Perceptions. Management Accounting Quarterly, 13(2), pp. 14-20.
LUTTER, D.J., (2013). Understanding Funding Sources. Bank News, 113(7), pp. 12-14.
MASLIANKOA, P.P. and MAISTRENKOA, A.S., (2012). A system of entities for enterprise business models. Cybernetics and Systems Analysis, 48(1), pp. 99-107.
N.KIRTZKHALIA, (2012), May 08. Number of registered in Georgia business entities increases by 11.2 percent in April. McClatchy – Tribune Business News.
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Challenges of Implementing Cultural Competence Essay
Order Instructions:
Dear Sir,
Please read the article that it is on the attachment, the answer the following question:
1) Identify the definition of cross-cultural competence.
2) Evaluate and identify the challenges that can occur when attempting to instill cultural intelligence into the workforce.
The following conditions must meet in the paper
1) I want a typical and a quality answer which should have about 830 words.
2) The answer must raise appropriate critical questions.
3) The answer must include examples from experience or the web with references from relevant examples from real companies.
4) Do include all your references, as per the Harvard Referencing System,
5) Wikipedia site for referencing is not allowed.
Appreciate each single moment you spend in writing my paper
Best regards
SAMPLE ANSWER
Challenges of Implementing Cultural Competence
Cross-cultural competence involve the ability, skills, and knowledge of how to deal effectively with people from a variety of cultures. It should not be mistaken to imply a single culture that one has studied for years. A person who has cross-cultural competence is able to interact with people from various cultures comfortably (Eisenberg et al., 2013). It is specifically important for companies that operate internationally as the management must be able to communicate effectively with all its employees and customers. While it is possible to teach cross-cultural competence, various challenges are likely to be experienced when attempting to instill cultural intelligence into the workforce.
Differences in understanding among workers may inhibit an educational process. While some workers may be fast learners, others may be slow at understanding hence calling for more time to be put at helping them catch up. Specifically in regard to virtual communications, older people may either be reluctant in learning about it. The younger generations may on the other hand be reluctant to learn the theoretical part of cultural competence.
Goodman (2012) suggests using a program that is tailored for the company situation so that employees can associate business and culture more easily. There is a likelihood that such a program will be difficult to prepare. Instead, it may require testing over time before it is seen to be effective. The testing time may be translated as wasted time as it may not contribute to the productivity of either the employees or the company.
Language barriers may make creating a culturally competent workplace difficult. While people may understand how to deal and understand each other, language barriers often associated with cultural differences may cause difficulties in instilling the cultural competence (Eisenberg et al., 2013). Even employees who wish to communicate respectfully may not be able to communicate if the barrier is not overcome. Cultural barriers may also be difficult for those learning new language since even directly translated phrases may imply different things in different cultures.
The company requires allocating resources for the program. For a company to instill cultural competence in the work place, it must be willing to go an extra mile and allocate resources for the project (Parekh, 2000). For instance, learning materials must be either purchased or created using the company’s financial resources. The company must also be ready to dedicate its labor time to learning as well as to educate other employees. Employees may also require getting study leaves in an attempt to be culturally competent.
Historical or contemporary differences between various groups may strain the effectiveness of the program (Ewoh, 2013). Employees may either feel distrusted if they get into contact with other communities or they may arouse such feelings from members of other communities. Some employees may also be unwilling to interact with members of the other community if there are similar differences. These will create a difficulty in the learning process. In some cases the situations may arouse pre-existing conflicts.
Creating a culturally competent working often involves an overhaul of the entire company culture. For a company’s workforce to become effectively culturally competent, the idea must be integrated into the work culture (Ewoh, 2013). The overhaul comes with a disruption of the company operations and a reasonable slowdown in production. The culture change also comes with expenses to cover as well as broad consultation of the company’s executives. The company may also require rebranding to show its compliance with certain laws.
Culture is ever changing. While there are certain aspects that are unique to certain cultural groups, it is very difficult to obtain a program that accommodates the changes that will often occur in cultures (Goodman, 2012). Furthermore, culture is not always the same for members of a community. The differences in culture over time make culture difficult to learn. Culture changes moreover do not change in the same direction. This implies that people may find themselves in conflict with people in a cultural setting in which they are competent.
The diversity of culture is very extensive. Even within a foreign country, people can only learn the basics that are generally accepted in the culture (Leavitt, 2010). The rest of the culture is mainly dealt with as situations come up using concepts such as accommodation of those ideas that are seemingly foreign. Learning cultural competence is a gradual process. A company may have to wait for the entire (or most) of the workforce to become culturally competent. Once the company gains momentum, it may make cultural competence a requirement for employment. Before this though, a lot of devotion to the learning process along with patience must be employed.
In conclusion, while cultural competence is very important to any workplace, it comes with a variety of challenges especially to the initiating company. These challenges are mostly those that arise due to difficulties in learning, resource allocation, and the change process. The benefits, however, always outweigh the difficulties, and such constraints should not prevent the implementation process.
References
Eisenberg, J., Lee, H., Bruck, F., Brenner, B., Claes, M., Mironski, J. and Bell, R. 2013. Can business schools make students culturally competent? Effects of cross-cultural management courses on cultural intelligence. Academy of Management Learning \& Education, p.–2012.
Ewoh, A. 2013. Managing and Valuing Diversity: Challenges to Public Managers in the 21st Century. Public Personnel Management, [online] 42(2), pp.107-122. Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0091026013487048 [Accessed 29 Oct. 2014].
Goodman, N. 2012. Training for cultural competence. Industrial and Commercial Training, 44(1), pp.47–50.
Leavitt, R. 2010. Cultural competence. Thorofare, NJ: SLACK Inc.
Parekh, B. 2000. Rethinking multiculturalism. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
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Identify and assess the differences between the American and British approaches to competencies. Compare these approaches to those in your own country or in a culture with which you are familiar.
The following conditions must meet in the paper
1) I want a typical and a quality answer which should have about 1400 words.
2) The answer must raise appropriate critical questions.
3) The answer must include examples from experience or the web with references from relevant examples from real companies.
4) Do include all your references, as per the Harvard Referencing System,
Appreciate each single moment you spend in writing my paper
SAMPLE ANSWER
American and British Approaches to Competencies
Competences are characteristics of individuals that are the basic building blocks of behavior or performance at work. Values, Work Style, Knowledge abilities, attitudes and personality are the job performances. Competencies are valuable and significant to succession planning, staffing, career counseling, training, development and team building. Competencies are problematic to implement and utilize in the work place. The idea that the components of effective performance can be individually identified and isolated is one that has many cynics. Acceptance of this idea would also mean accepting that employees must exhibit a set of particular competencies (Burgoyne, 1989: Collin, 1989; Jubb & Robotham, 1997).
A majority of frameworks from which competency is bases are not dynamic. They are mechanistic, static and seek to prescribe a specific list of desirable competencies. By missing the opportunity to incorporate flexibility and openness to change, the frameworks do not give the due value of non-task specific competencies. To try and mitigate this, one must adopt an even wider point of view while understanding the competencies in three levels:
General working competencies, which she defines as competencies required for different working situations and at different periods (Kuijpers, 2001).
Learning competencies, which consists of a bundle of competencies which facilitate the development of working competencies (Kuijpers, 2001).
Career related competencies, which are defined to manage working and learning competencies within a personal career path (Kuijpers, 2001).
Despite these challenges, competencies do not discriminate between management and lower level employees. They are able to meet the needs of employees irrespective of their status differences. When competencies are harnessed, they are able to assist organization increase productivity, conduct trainings that augment the organizations objectives, employees attain the knowledge of expectations, advance work performance and assist build the trust between managers and employees.
It is important to point out that the different approached between the American and British approach to competencies is not because of philosophical divergence but rather due to cultural societal differences – each takes a unique approach. The initial difference is in the behavioral approach. Whereas the one focuses on the input that enhances the successful performance achievement, the other focuses on the outcome of competencies. The United Kingdom and some socialist countries aggressively seek out people with handicapped people and offer them empowerment. This is considered as the standard approach (Orstenk, 1997; Oliveara-Rees, 1994).
The contrary is where individuals are encouraged to prove their competencies. For the organization, it focuses on the outcome with the employee contributing the most being highly appreciated. Most multinational organizations will hire a work force with all manner of competencies and cultures. With this work force, the organization wills endeavor to develop them through training and incentives for outcomes.
Differences in Definition of Competencies: British versus the America Approach
Basis for Difference
American Approach
British Approach
Purpose
Development of competencies to enhance performance
Certification and Assessment of Employees
Focus
Focus on individual behavior and attributes
Focus on Job/individual characteristics and skill accumulation
Procedure to Develop
Produce descriptions of excellent behavior and attributes to define standards
Produce performance standards for job function and professions
Role of Organizational Context
Contest defines the behavior and traits required
Context is not as significant as professional area and specific job functions
Conceptualization of Work/Individual
Greater emphasis on the individual rather that specific tasks
The characteristics of the work are the point of departure.
Methodological Approach
Rationalistic and positivistic
More multi-method and quantitative
Scope
Competencies are specific to organizations
Competencies are specific to professions and job functions
Measurement
Quantitative measurement and identification of a correlation between possession of attributes and work performance
Documentation of evidence of work activities and experience denotes evidence of competency
Role of Assessor
Assessment of performance by job supervisors and job incumbent
Formally assessed by external assessor to determine level
Perspective of Learning Advocated
Cognitive perspective of learning
Constructive perspective of learning
Generally, Americans view competencies as individual. The focus is on the skill set and knowledge to best undertake a particular role or job. On their part, the British take a broader focus. It views competencies as encompassing the attributes of employees in addition to the whole plethora of personal effectiveness issues and guidelines necessary to get a job done. The Americans view and define competences in line with the worker. The worker oriented definitions view competencies as those generated by worker behavior, and clearly specify the qualities and skill the requisite person for the job must have. These competencies will more often than not be generic, making every effort to illustrate as concisely as possible the behaviors that high performers could possible display, even if in different proportions and according to level, function or context.
The British view competencies as standards for job functions and professions, while Americans seek out their excellent performers and from this develop tests to examine the relevant competencies. Despite the difference, both the American and the British view competencies as being individual not group or community. The Europeans have borrowed heavily from the British. In mainland Europe, competencies are visualized mentally in terms of individual capacity to perform within a profession or function. With this, the spotlight will thus be on the certification or qualification they receive. Qualifications are viewed as representing an official certification of knowledge, skill and attitude.
The British and by extension the Europeans view competencies from a predominantly input-based, worker-oriented approach, with the focus on person-related variables that each individual brings to an assignment. To them, competencies in addition to being output-based or work-oriented take into account the outputs connected with effective performance. Though the British and the Europeans view competencies from a similar view, the British focus is more on organizations and the performance requirements of the specific job position as opposed to the individual holding the job. The Europeans on their part advocate a work-oriented approach with organizations uncompromisingly pursuing indicators that will show conformance. The indicators the organization will be glad to experience since they indicate achievement are enterprise, adaptability and flexibility.
The British – by extension the European view on competence is assumed that to have the all the underlying characteristics. Research has shown that the American and British approaches diverge at the point of their pedagogical perspective and on the assumptions about the learning process. For the Americans, the emphasis is squarely on a cognitive perspective of learning. The British and by extension the Europeans place the greatest emphasis on constructivist view of learning. Both approaches offer alternative explanations of the context of competencies, their interaction with work and their measurement. Cognitive approaches place a lot of emphasis on objective measurement whereas constructivist approaches give emphasis to the subjective and motivational dimensions of competency.
Despite the vagueness that surrounds the definition of competencies, the discourse on this topic has been tremendous. Whereas one would expect the indistinctness to hinder discourse, it has been posited that the strength of the concepts could be in their underlying complexity, working towards incorporating labor and educational organizations, external and internal organization gurus and employees, and management interests concurrently.
Research has shown that assessment and identification of competencies is a controversial issues. Different methods of assessment focus on specific approaches. Work-oriented approach advocates methods such as job element method. Worker-oriented approach advocates personal profiling. On their part, multidimensional approaches do not advocate any particular method but instead suggest the use of multiple methods. The critical incident method asks employees of high and average performance to describe critical situations that have occurred at work and how they reacted to these situations (New, 1996; Thomson & Mabey, 1994). The job function method is used to identify the task functions which are used to infer the knowledge and skills for job performance (Spencer & Signe, 1993; McClelland, 1973).
In conclusion, it is evident that competence models do not consider the development of competence in terms of any set programme of learning. The focus is not on the training of the employee but on the capability to do what is required by the function, role, profession, or job. Given the lack of a clear and coherent definition, the US approach identifies itself with an input, worker-oriented model. The UK model focuses more on an output, worker-oriented model. A third school exists that calls for a multidimensional approach.
References
Burgoyne, J. (1989): “Creating the Management Portfolio: Building on Competency Approaches to Management Development”, Management Education & Development, Vol. 20, No. 1, p. 56 – 61.
Collin, A. (1989): “Managers’ Competence: Rhetoric, Reality & Research”, Personnel Review, Vol. 28, No. 6, p. 20 – 25.
Jubb, R. & Robotham D. (1997): “Competences in Management Development: Challenging the Myths”, Journal of European Industrial Training, Vol. 2 1, No. 4-5, p. 171 – 177.
Kuijpers, M. (2000): “Career Development Competencies”, Proceedings of the Second Conference of HRD Research & Practice Across Europe, 309 – 314. University of Twente.
McClelland, D.C. (1973): “ Testing for Competence, rather than Intelligence”, American Psychologist, Vol. 28, p. 1 – 14.
Oliveara-Rees, F. (1994): “Qualification versus Competence: A Discussion on the Meaning of Words: A Change in Concepts of a Political Issue”, Beroepsopleiding, Vol. 1, p. 74 – 79.
Orstenk, J. (1997): Learning to Learn at Work, Delft: Eburon. New, G.E. (1996): “Reflections: A three-tier model of organisational competencies”, Journal of Managerial Psychology, Vol. 11, No. 8, p. 44 – 52.
