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Assessing causality Term Paper Available

Assessing causality
Assessing causality

Assessing causality

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Epi week 10

Assessing Causality

In 1965, Sir Austin Bradford Hill proposed guidelines for assessing causality. His intention was not for these to be used in a rigid manner but rather to be used as a guide.

For this Application Assignment, review your resources on Hill’s guidelines for causality. Then find a review journal article dealing with an association where causality is hypothesized based on an assessment of the body of literature on a topic. Analyze this article using Hill’s guidelines. Then respond to the following questions:

•Does the article use Hill’s guidelines to determine causality?
•If so, are they each addressed thoroughly?
•If not, describe the alternative means used for assessing causality.
•How well do you believe Hill’s guidelines work as a tool for determining causality for the association your review article addresses?

SAMPLE ANSWER

Assessing Causality

Hill’s Criteria of Causation basically delineates the minimal condition that is required to ascertain a causal relationship between 2 items. Sir Austin Bradford Hill originally presented these criteria as a method that can be utilized to determine the causal link between a given factor, for instance tobacco use, and an ill health, like lung cancer or emphysema (Doll, 2010). The criteria forms the starting point of contemporary epidemiological research that tries to find out scientifically valid causal links between possible disease agents and the multiple sicknesses which afflict people (Crislip, 2010). The criteria are nine. (i) Strength of the association: undoubtedly, if condition Y brings about outcome Z, then it has to be that Y and Z can be demonstrably related with each other. Simply put, the association should be sufficiently strong to be considered as clinically significant by the person reading the argument (Van Reekum, Streiner & Conn, 2009). (ii) Consistency of the evidence: if Y causes Z, then one should expect that evidence that supports this relationship would actually be found consistently (Crislip, 2010).

(iii) Specificity: given that illnesses could have different etiologies as well as therapies, this criteria is weaker. (iv) Temporal sequence: without a doubt, if Y causes Z, then Y must necessarily occur before Z. This is an essential criterion used to establish a causation argument (Crislip, 2010). (v) Biological gradient or dose-response: a large exposure has to result in a large effect, and a little exposure has to cause little effect. (vi) Biological rationale or plausibility: there is a higher chance of a causative relationship being present if it actually makes biological sense that Y results in Z. The association is in agreement with presently accepted understanding of pathological processes (Susser, 2008). (vii) Coherence: there is a higher probability that Y results in Z if this assumed causal relationship is similar to what is already known regarding the disorder or sickness. (viii) Experimental evidence: the health condition could be improved or prevented by a suitable experimental regimen. (ix) Analogous evidence: this criterion basically takes the form of supposing that if some condition which is the same as Y brings about an outcome the same as Z, then this is evidence that Z is caused by Y (Crislip, 2010; Doll, 2010).

Van Reekum, R., Cohen, T., & Wong, J. (2000). Can Traumatic Brain Injury Cause Psychiatric Disorders? The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences. 12:316-327. https://www.doi:10.1176/appi.neuropsych.12.2.316

Van Reekum et al. (2000) reviewed the evidence in supporting the argument that Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) might result in psychiatric disorders and they employed the structure presented by some of Hill’s most pertinent criteria with the aim of critically examining the strength of this argument. The article uses some of Hill’s guidelines in determining causality. Not all of the criteria are addressed thoroughly.

In the article, Van Reekum et al. (2000) presented consistent evidence of an association between traumatic brain injury and several disorders from many studies. Nonetheless, most of this research was in fact narrowed to naturalistic follow-up studies. Not any of the studies used pre-TBI – prospective – psychiatric evaluations, so that the evidence for the apt temporal sequence was limited. Retrospective psychiatric evaluations suggested that nearly all of the psychiatric disorders start for the first time after traumatic brain injury. There is little evidence in the article of biological gradient for psychiatric disorders after traumatic brain injury in adults. This suggests either that presently available approaches to measuring the severity of traumatic brain injury are insufficient or, on the other hand, that traumatic brain injury increases the risk of psychiatric disorders notwithstanding the TBI severity (Van Reekum et al., 2000). There was substantial evidence supporting a biologic rationale that is in fact cohesive with the existing, modern knowledge; it has been found that traumatic brain injury actually disrupts neuronal systems that underlie behavior and mood (Van Reekum, Streiner & Conn, 2009). The other causal factors to psychiatric disorders post traumatic brain injury were also preliminarily recognized, for instance the existence of pre-TBI psychiatric disorders in some instances.

Hill’s guidelines are very effective as a tool for determining causality for the association that the article review addresses. In essence, Hill’s guidelines in reviewing the evidence for the argument of causation presented by Van Reekum et al. (2000) was useful for several reasons. The structure provided by the guidelines allowed for systematic review of every available evidence and to find its place within the argument. It is of note that where the data were not consistent with the causation argument, this served to encourage the creation of new hypotheses, for instance the lack of a biological gradient indicated that traumatic brain injury of even mild seriousness can be able to disrupt neuronal circuits that underlie psychiatric disorders. Using the guidelines emphasized the methodological drawbacks in future research. Moreover, using the guideline permitted the review to move further than the ascertainment of a simple connection between psychiatric disorders and TBI by encouraging consideration of extra criteria which support the argument.

References

Crislip, M. (2010). Causation and Hill’s Criteria. Boca Raton, Fl: CRC Press.

Doll, R. (2010). Sir Austin Bradford Hill and the Progress of Medical Science. British Medical Journal, 305: 1521-1526

Susser, M. (2008). Judgment and Causal Inference: Criteria in Epidemiologic Studies. American Journal of Epidemiology, 105:1-15

Van Reekum, R., Cohen, T., & Wong, J. (2000). Can Traumatic Brain Injury Cause Psychiatric Disorders? The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences. 12:316-327. http://www.doi:10.1176/appi.neuropsych.12.2.316

Van Reekum, R., Streiner, D. L., & Conn, D. K. (2009). Applying Bradford Hill’s Criteria for Causation to Neuropsychiatry: Challenges and Opportunities. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci,13(3).

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Experimental studies Research Paper

Experimental studies
Experimental studies

Experimental studies

Use at least three (3) quality references Note: Wikipedia and other related websites do not qualify as academic resources.

Your assignment must follow these formatting requirements:

  • Be typed, double spaced, using Times New Roman font (size 12), with one-inch margins on all sides; citations and references must follow APA or school-specific format. Check with your professor for any additional instructions.
  • Include a cover page containing the title of the assignment, the student’s name, the professor’s name, the course title, and the date. The cover page and the reference page are not included in the required assignment page length.

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Case Control Research Paper Assignment

Case Control Research
Case Control Research

Case Control Research

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Case Control Research

The critique of an epidemiologic study involves an assessment of the methods of data collection (which includes the type of study design), the analysis of the data and the interpretation of the data. For this application you are to read the following case control research article. After reading the article, complete the Case Control Template is below

•Lamontagne, F., Garant, M., Carvalho, J., Lanthier, L., Smieja, M., & Pilon, D. (2008). Pneumococcal vaccination and risk of myocardial infarction. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 179(8), 773-777.
Use the Academic Search Premier database, and search using the article’s Accession Number: 34526279

Case-Control Study
Submitted By (make sure your name and date are included here):
Article Citation in APA format:

Research Question:

Health Outcome of Interest:

Exposure(s) of Interest:

Diagnostic Criteria for Cases:

Case Ascertainment (include whether this was a single site or multi-site study):

Number of Cases (include information, if available, about the number who participated and the number who refused; indicate whether any information was provided about those who refused to participate):

Control Population (type/number/selection):

Type(s)/Method(s) of Data Collection (e.g. questionnaire, medical records, whether or not there was any procedure for validating some or the data):

Type of Data Analysis:

Results/Main Findings of Study:

Assessment of Bias (selection/information):

Assessment of Confounders:

Comments:

SAMPLE ANSWER

Case-Control Study

Article Citation in APA format: Lamontagne, F., Garant, M., Carvalho, J., Lanthier, L., Smieja, M., & Pilon, D. (2008). Pneumococcal Vaccination and Risk of Myocardial Infarction. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 179(8), 773-777.

Research Question/Hypothesis: in this article, the research question for the case study is not stated. However, the hypothesis is specified. The hypothesis was that: pneumococcal vaccination will be able to protect patients from myocardial infarction.

Health Outcome of Interest: patients being free from myocardial infarction

Exposure(s) of Interest: the authors regarded patients to have had the exposure to pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine if these patients had been given this vaccine within the ten years prior to the index date, as documented in the Logivac database. Exposure was stratified by the interval between vaccination and index data (Lamontagne et al., 2008).

Diagnostic Criteria for Cases: patients who took part are those who were considered to be at high risk of having myocardial infarction, and had been admitted at the health care organization between 1/1/1997 and 12/31/2003. The risk for myocardial infarction is defined as the presence of diabetes; hypertension; or dyslipidemia in women aged over 50 years and in men aged over 45 years (Lamontagne et al., 2008; Lachaine, Rinfret & Merikle, 2006).

Case Ascertainment (include whether this was a single site or multi-site study): this was a single site study given that the authors carried out a case-control study of patients at risk of myocardial infarction, and these patients had been admitted at only one healthcare organization, which was a tertiary care hospital in Quebec, Canada.

 

Number of Cases (include information, if available, about the number who participated and the number who refused; indicate whether any information was provided about those who refused to participate):

There were 999 cases. The cases, according to the authors, were less likely compared to controls to have been vaccinated. The cases were matched according to sex, age, as well as year of hospitalization. For cases, the authors considered the admittance date for myocardial infarction to be the date of index (Lamontagne et al., 2008). No information is provided about the participants who refused to participate.

Control Population (type/number/selection): there were 3,996 controls in this study who were matched according to sex, age, as well as year of hospital admission. Controls were defined as patients who had 1 or more of the described risk factors as stated in the medical record, and had not been earlier diagnosed with atherosclerotic disease, and who never experienced a new myocardial infarction all through the study period. The authors only included those patients who had been admitted to the surgical departments of the hospital. For the controls, the authors considered the admission date into one of the departments as the index date. Four controls were matched to every case basing on sex; index, within 12 months; and age, within 24 months (Lamontagne et al., 2008).     

Type(s)/Method(s) of Data Collection (e.g. questionnaire, medical records, whether or not there was any procedure for validating some or the data):

Data was collected through the use of medical records. Two sources of data collection were used. The first one was the research-purpose database of the hospital. This database, besides demographic data, comprised, for every hospital administration from the year 1996, complete information on all secondary and primary diagnoses, which were coded appropriate to the International Classification of Diseases, version 9. Logivac database was also utilized; a database that is maintained by the government and records all pneumococcal vaccination that have been administered in Quebec (Grayston, Kronmal & Jackson, 2005; Hansson, 2005).

Type of Data Analysis: The authors performed statistical analysis in which they estimated exposure to the pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine at 20 percent. The authors utilized conditional logistic regression in estimating adjusted OR and 95 percent CI for new myocardial infarctions in relation to receiving of the pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine. They performed both multivariable and univariable analyses and several covariables were incorporated. For all analyses, the authors matched controls and cases by index date, sex and age (Lamontagne et al., 2008).

Results/Main Findings of Study: Compared to controls, cases had a less likelihood of having been vaccinated – 95 percent confidence level 0.40-0.70, adjusted odds ration 0.53. The putative protective role of the pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine was not noticed for patients who had been administered with the vaccine up to 12 months prior to the myocardial infarction. On the contrary, if vaccination had been administered 24 months or more prior to the hospital admission, then the association was stronger (Lamontagne et al., 2008).   

Assessment of Bias (selection/information): At 3,999, the number of controls who were selected to take part in the study was considerably high compared to the cases, who were just 999.

Assessment of Confounders: After several modifying and confounding variables were considered, the findings showed that the chances of having received a vaccination within the group who had experienced myocardial infarction was roughly ½ that within the control group. In this study, there might have been residual confounding. It is of note that other cardiovascular risk factors including medication use, tobacco use, obesity, and lifestyle factors for instance exercise and diet could not be included in the model given that these traits are not documented within the research database (Lamontagne et al., 2008).

Comments: the study is of major importance since it demonstrates that there is an effect of pneumococcal vaccination in decreasing the incidents of new myocardial infarction. Nonetheless, the population of this study was restricted to only one hospital comprising largely Caucasian males. As such, future study should incorporate participants from other demographics and from multiple sites. 

References

Grayston, J. T., Kronmal, R. A., & Jackson, L. A. (2005). Azithromycin for the Secondary Prevention of Coronary Events. N Engl J Med 2005;352:1637-45.

Hansson, G. K. (2005). Inflammation, atherosclerosis, and coronary artery disease. N Engl J Med, 352:1685-95

Lachaine, J., Rinfret, S., & Merikle, E. P. (2006). Persistence and Adherence to Cholesterol Lowering Agents: Evidence from Régie de l’assurance maladie du Québec data. Am Heart J 2006;152:164-9.

Lamontagne, F., Garant, M., Carvalho, J., Lanthier, L., Smieja, M., & Pilon, D. (2008). Pneumococcal Vaccination and Risk of Myocardial Infarction. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 179(8), 773-777.

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Role of p-values and confidence intervals

Role of p-values and confidence intervals
Role of p-values and confidence intervals

Role of p-values and confidence intervals within epidemiological research

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Week 6

Epidemiologists control for variables such as confounding and random error by carefully developing research studies. Although there are not guarantees to eliminate or reduce all possible errors, it is important to minimize their effects.

For this Discussion, review your readings from this week. Then addressing the following:
•
• Identify the role of p-values and confidence intervals within epidemiological research and provide examples of how these are used to interpret research findings.
•
• Discuss the effect sample size has on p-values and confidence intervals and how this affects interpretation of statistical results.

SAMPLE ANSWER

Role of p-values and confidence intervals

Confidence intervals and p-values are reported in almost every epidemiological research and are used in interpreting statistical analysis results. These measures are used by medical investigators and researchers to answer such questions as: “are the results significant?” or “is the hypothesis accepted?” Epidemiological researchers do not have to worry about testing the significance of results when carrying out statistical researches because they can depend on the p-value and the confidence interval. The p-value is the probability of a value that is similarly extreme or even more extreme as the one in the study if the hypothesis is true. Confidence interval on the other hand can be defined as is an array of values within which there is reasonable confidence that the parameter of the population lies. The reporting of confidence intervals and p-values basically follows that testing of hypothesis or significance, (Bland & Peacock, 2012).

For instance, when testing a hypothesis using the p-value, the particular cutoff or level of significance (conventionally 0.05) is used to test whether values are significant or not; those less are significant, while those above are not. For instance in the study of differences in low birth weight prevalence between singletons and multiple pregnancies, the p value can be used to “endorse” the hypothesis that there is a difference. For the confidence interval, consider a test for difference in mean sugar reduction between a standard hypoglycemic and a new drug. The null hypothesis in this case should state that there is no difference in the blood sugar reduction mean; that can be accepted or rejected, (Gardner& Altman, 2013).

P-values and confidence intervals tend to decrease in size with an increase in sample size unless the null hypothesis is true. As the sample size increases, for the case of the p-value, there is an increased certainty on where the proportion mean might be, and hence large samples are more consistent with smaller ranges of possible population values. For the confidence interval, a larger sample size means a decreased error margin. The effect this has on interpretation of results is that larger samples report small marginal errors and the certainty of finding the true population parameter increases, hence the certainty of the results increases too, (Houle, 2007).

References

Bland M, Peacock J. (2012). Interpreting statistics with confidence. The Obstetrician and Gynaecologist;4:176–180

Gardner MJ, Altman DG. (2013). Confidence intervals rather than P-values: estimation rather than hypothesis testing. Br Med J. 292:746–750

Houle TT. (2007). Importance of effect sizes for the accumulation of knowledge. Anesthesiology. 106:415–417

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Epidemiological Study Designs Assignment

Epidemiological Study Designs
Epidemiological Study Designs

Epidemiological Study Designs

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When conducting research, your design and methods are developed around what you are trying to find or assess. Different research methods are used to answer and address different types of questions. In epidemiology, there are multiple forms of research studies and as a public health official, it is important for you to understand when it is best to use these different types of research.

For this discussion, review the different types of epidemiology study designs listed in Table 6-1 on page 141.

Then address the following:

•Pick three epidemiological study designs to discuss. Summarize their main characteristics and discuss at least one strength and one limitation of each study design you select.

•Discuss which measure of association is most appropriate for each of the three study designs you’ve selected and why

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Cohort studies Term Paper Available Here

Cohort studies
Cohort studies

Cohort studies

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Cohort Studies

For this application you are to read the following cohort study article. After reading the article, complete the Cohort Study Template is below.

•Beelen, R., Hoek, G., Van Den Brandt, P., Goldbohm, R., Fischer, P., Schouten, L., et al. (2008). Long-term effects of traffic-related air pollution on mortality in a Dutch cohort (NLCS-AIR Study). Environmental Health Perspectives, 116(2), 196-202.
Use the Academic Search Premier database, and search using the article’s Accession Number: 31169911

Cohort Study
Submitted By (make sure your name and date are included here):
Article Citation in APA format:

Research Question:

Health Outcome of Interest:

Exposure(s) of Interest:

Type of Study (please indicate whether this is a prospective (concurrent) or retrospective (non-concurrent) or ambidirectional study:

Description/Ascertainment of Cohort:

Data Collection at Baseline:

Type, Frequency and Duration of Follow-Up (indicate something about loss to follow-up and any efforts that were made to minimize loss to follow-up and include information on the characteristics of those who were lost to follow-up and comment on why this is important):

Type of Data Analysis (include measure of association used):

Results/Main Findings of Study:

Assessment of Bias (selection and information):

Assessment of Confounders:

Comments:

SAMPLE ANSWER

Cohort Studies

Article Citation: Beelen, R., Hoek, G., Van Den Brandt, P., Goldbohm, R., Fischer, P., Schouten, L., et al. (2008). Long-term effects of traffic-related air pollution on mortality in a Dutch cohort (NLCS-AIR Study). Environmental Health Perspectives, 116(2), 196-202.

Research Question: what is the association between mortality and continuing exposure to traffic-related air pollution?

Health Outcome of Interest: decreased respiratory mortality by reducing exposure to ambient air pollution

Exposure(s) of Interest: long-term exposure to traffic-related air pollution. In essence, exposure to sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), black smoke (BS), particulate matter (PM) in addition to a variety of exposure variables to traffic comprised the exposures of interest in the study which were estimated at the home address (Beelen et al., 2008).

Type of Study: this is a prospective cohort study. In essence, a prospective cohort study is understood as a study in which the effects of a given variable are plotted over time, and the research study becomes a continuing and long-term process (Gehring et al., 2006). This cohort study is prospective given that it fits the definition of prospective; it was initiated in the year 1986, and the authors assessed mortality between 1/1/1987 and 31/12/1996, meaning that it was an ongoing process.

Description/Ascertainment of Cohort: the Netherlands Cohort Study on Diet and Cancer was started with enrolling 120,852 subjects that consisted of 62,573 women and 58,279 men aged between 55 years to 69 years, who lived in 204 municipalities all through the nation (Beelen et al., 2008).

Data Collection at Baseline: Baseline questionnaire was used to collect data. At baseline, every subject filled out an 11-page questionnaire on nutritional habits, as well as other factors for cancer. For every subject, data obtained from one page of the questionnaire were entered at baseline – with information pertaining to smoking status, sex, and age.

Type, Frequency and Duration of Follow-Up: After recruitment of the subjects, all of them were followed up for cancer incidence by record linkage to registries of cancer. The authors assessed mortality between January 1st 1987 and December 31st 1996, meaning that the participants were actually followed from the year 1987 to the year 1996; a period of 10 years. The authors have not stated anything about loss of follow-up as well as any efforts  that were made to reduce loss to follow-up. The authors estimated exposure to nitrogen dioxide, particulate matter, black smoke and other traffic-related air pollutants at the home address of the subjects.

Type of Data Analysis: the authors analyzed the effects of air pollution for overall concentrations, and a mixture of background concentrations and traffic variables for the purpose of identifying effects of living close to busy highways separately. They calculated relative risks for concentrations and traffic variable dissimilarities between the 95th and 5th percentiles of the distributions (Beelen et al., 2008). The authors performed Cox analyses in the entire cohort with the use of Cox proportional hazards models. They computed person-years for every subject from baseline until end of follow-up or death. The authors adjusted for smoking, sex, age, as well as area-level. Cox-Poisson random effects survival software was used in incorporating spatial clustering at the neighborhood and/or municipal scale in the entire cohort analyses (Beelen et al., 2008).

Results/Main Findings of Study: the intensity of traffic on the closest road was independently linked to mortality. Relative risks at 95 percent CI for a 10-µg/m3 rise in the concentrations of black smoke – difference between 95th and 5th percentile – were 1.05 for natural cause, 1.03 for lung cancer, 1.22 for respiratory, 1.04 for cardiovascular, and 1.04 for mortality besides lung cancer, respiratory, or cardiovascular. The results were the same for PM2.5 and NO2, but there was no association for SO2 and mortality

Assessment of Bias: The authors selected subjects who were living near busy roads in 204 municipalities across the Netherlands. Those who lived far from busy highways were not chosen.

Assessment of Confounders: analysis in the case-cohort sample illustrated little distinction between the effect estimates adjusted for every confounder and adjusted for only the narrow set of confounders that were available in the entire cohort. The effect estimates were not sensitive to dissimilar models of confounders for both the case cohort and full cohort analyses.

Comments: The study is of major importance in contributing to the evidence that continuing and lasting exposure to traffic-related air pollution is linked to increased mortality. This is because traffic-related air pollution in addition to other traffic exposure variables were found to have an association with mortality in the cohort

References

Beelen, R., Hoek, G., Van Den Brandt, P., Goldbohm, R., Fischer, P., & Schouten, L. (2008). Long-term effects of traffic-related air pollution on mortality in a Dutch cohort (NLCS-AIR Study). Environmental Health Perspectives, 116(2), 196-202.

Gehring, U., Heinrich, J., Kramer, U., Grote, V., Hochadel, M., Sugiri, D. (2006). Long-term Exposure to Ambient Air Pollution and Cardiopulmonary Mortality in Women. Epidemiology. 17:545–651.

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Chemistry Questions Assignment Paper

Chemistry Questions
Chemistry Questions

Chemistry Questions

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1. To achieve a complete valence shell, how many electrons must an atom of strontium gain or lose?
A. lose 2 B. lose 1 C. gain 1 D. gain 2

2. Which of these pairs will form ionic bonds?
A. N and C B. Na and Cs C. K and Cl D. S and Cl

3. Which of the following groups of atoms would you expect to have similar chemical properties?
A. Mg & Na B. B & C C. O & S D. Cu & O

4. What is the most stable ion formed by chlorine?
A. Cl2 B. Cl+ C. Cl— D. Cl2—

5. A pure substance
A. has a definite constant composition and properties that are invariant and unique.
B. can be separated into distinct parts by physical separation techniques.
C. is another name for a homogeneous mixture.

6. Covalent bonds are formed when
A. an atom gives up an electron
B. atoms become ionized
C. atoms share electrons
D. metals bond to nonmetals

7. How many valence electrons does a neutral calcium atom have?
A. 0 B. 2 C. 8 D. 18

8. What types of substance normally forms anions?
A. halogens B. nonmetals C. metals D. noble gases

9. Which of the following correctly represents 2 molecules of water?
A. H4O2 B. (H2O)2 C. 2 H2 + 2 O D. 2 H2O

10. Which of the following is the correct symbol for an iron ion with a charge of plus 3?
A. Fe3+ B. Fe (III) C. Fe(III) D. 3+
Fe

11. The total number of atoms in one formula unit of (CH3CH2)2NH is
a. 6. b. 14. c. 16. d. 20.

12. Which of the following describes the difference between Na+ and Na?
A. Na is a neutral atom and Na+ is an ion with 1 more electron than Na.
B. Na is a neutral atom and Na+ is an ion with 1 less electron than Na.
C. Na and Na+ are two different isotopes of the same atom.
D. Na is a neutral atom and Na+ is an ion with 1 more proton than Na.

13. Which of the following IS NOT a stable ion?
A. Li+ B. Na2– C. Al+3 D. Zn2+

14. Which of the following is the dihydrogen phospate ion?
A. H2PO4
— B. 2 HPO4
— C. H2PO4
3— D. H2PO3

15. Which of these pairs will form covalent bonds?
A. Na and Li B. Na and Ca C. O and F D. Na and F

16. The electron configuration of Na+ is the same as the electron configuration of?
A. Na B. Ne C. F D. Mg

17. Which of the following is the chloride ion?
A. Cl2
2+ B. Cl2
2— C. Cl2
— D. Cl—

18. Which of the following is true about helium?
A. helium generally forms ionic bonds with metals
B. helium generally does not form bonds with other atoms
C. helium generally forms covalent bonds with non-metals
D. helium is a polyatomic ion

19. Which of the following is the correct way to represent the oxide ion?
A. O2— B. —2
O C. O— D. O2
4—

20. Which of these IS NOT a stable ion?
A. Mg+ B. Li+ C. Br– D. S2—

SAMPLE ANSWER

Chemistry Questions

Question 1

  1. lose 2

Question 2

  1. K and Cl

Question 3

  1. O & S

Question 4

  1. Cl—

Question 5

  1. has a definite constant composition and properties that are invariant and unique.

Question 6

  1. atoms share electrons

Question 7

  1. 2

Question 8

  1. halogens

Question 9

  1. 2 H2O

Question 10

  1. Fe3+

Question 11

  1. 16

Question 12

  1. Na is a neutral atom and Na+ is an ion with 1 less electron than Na.

Question 13

  1. Na2–

Question 14

  1. H2PO4—

 

Question 15

  1. O and F

Question 16

  1. Ne

Question 17

  1. Cl—

Question 18

  1. helium generally does not form bonds with other atoms

Question 19

  1. O2—

Question 20 

  1. Mg+

References

Ball, P. (2002). The Ingredients: A Guided Tour of the Elements. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

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Industrial economy after civil war Assignment

Industrial economy after civil war
Industrial economy after civil war

Industrial economy after civil war

Order Instructions:

1) “Industrial Economoy” After the Civil War:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r6tRp-zRUJs&list=PL8dPuuaLjXtMwmepBjTSG593eG7ObzO7s&index=26 www.youtube.com/watch

a) What two inventions/technologies established during the Civil War increased “efficiency and productivity”?

b) A third of population boom from 1870 to 1900 was caused by what?

c) The government encouraged industrial growth with tariffs [taxes on foreign imports], land grants to railroads and what?

d) By 1913 the US produced what percentage of the world’s entire industrial output?

e) The railroad industry established the four time zones but how did railroads effect shopping/marketing/consumer business? (Hint: it’s part of the “Sears” story)

f) Who was Cornelius Vanderbilt?

g) What was Rockefeller’s industry and how did he create his empire?

h) Consumer prices dropped, which raised standards of living, but now there was more job…what? (starts with s) And what else that hurt the poor most?

i) About how many people died on the job per year on average in this age?

j) What was the first national union?

k) The membership of this union shrank over time because it had become unfortunately associated with what?

l) Who was Samuel L Gompers?

m) Social Darwinism argued the poor should be poor because…why?

n) This was the time when people started to argue that wealth inequality was the opposite of…what?

1) What was “manifest destiny” and how was it applied to the western frontier?

2) Who/what were “robber barons”/”captains of industry”? Give a couple of examples.

3) Who was Andrew Carnegie?

3) What is Social Darwinism?

4) What was Nativism?

5) What is a monopoly and trust?

6) Describe “vertical” and “horizontal” integration.

7) Share/describe an example of labor strife/strike during the Gilded Age, for example a picket or protest or strike. (For example, read about the railroad strike in your texts.)

8) What’s the difference between the Knights of Labor and the American Federation of Labor?

9) What were “political machines” in big cities?

10) What did Bryan mean by a “cross of gold”? What was his political argument?

SAMPLE ANSWER

  • “Industrial Economy” After the Civil War
    a) What two inventions/technologies established during the Civil War increased “efficiency and productivity”? Financial system improvement that affected the national currency leading to improvement/ boost of telegram that improved communication of and construction of transcontinental Railway
    b) A third of population boom from 1870 to 1900 was caused by what? Immigration
    c) The government encouraged industrial growth with tariffs [taxes on foreign imports], land grants to railroads and what? Putting Native Americans on reservation
    d) By 1913 the US produced what percentage of the world’s entire industrial output? One third of industrial output.
    e) The railroad industry established the four time zones but how did railroads effect shopping/marketing/consumer business? (Hint: it’s part of the “Sears” story) Allowed shipment of jewelry and watches and other construction materials.
  1. f) Who was Cornelius Vanderbilt? Owners of the company/captain of the industries
    g) What was Rockefeller’s industry and how did he create his empire? He started as a clerk of Cleveland merchant and became the richest man in the world. Controlled 90 percent of the US oil industry
    h) Consumer prices dropped, which raised standards of living, but now there was more job…what? (starts with s) And what else that hurt the poor most? Security, booms and busts on the economy
    i) About how many people died on the job per year on average in this age? 35,000j) What was the first national union? Knights of labor
    k) The membership of this union shrank over time because it had become unfortunately associated with what? Haymarket riot in 1886
    l) Who was Samuel L Gompers? American federation of labor leader that focused on bread and butter issues such as pay for the workers
    m) Social Darwinism argued the poor should be poor because…why? Inherent evolutionary flaws, which enabled tycoons to sleep at night. The reason was that the tycoons owned the means of production and were a monopoly
    n) This was the time when people started to argue that wealth inequality was the opposite of…what? Success and failure, wealth and poverty
    1) What was “manifest destiny” and how was it applied to the western frontier? Manifest destiny was a term used to express the belief of the Anglo Saxon Americans to expand their civilization and institutions across the North American. It was applied to the western frontier to exemplify the unity of the Americans in its purpose and mission to expand its territories.
    2) Who/what were “robber barons”/”captains of industry”? Give a couple of examples. Robber barons were the people that owned industries and means of production in US. They included Cornelius Andrew, Vanderbilt ‘Re Me too’ Carnegie (Mellon), and Leland “I named my University son” Stanford
    3) Who was Andrew Carnegie? He was one of the rich men, owners of the company also capital of the industry
    3) What is Social Darwinism?  It meant that the theory of survival of fitness should be applied to people and corporationss of people. Big companies were fitter because there was nothing to fear of monopoly. Poor people were poor because of evolutionary flaws
    4) What was Nativism? Refers to policies or beliefs that protected or favored the interests of the native population at the expense of immigrants
    5) What is a monopoly and trust? Monopoly is a situation where, larger industries dominate the market killing smaller companies leading to exploitation due to lack of competition. Trust, on the other hand, are entities established for purposes of investment.6) Describe “vertical” and “horizontal” integration. Vertical integration is where the company owns its supply chain while horizontal integration is where a company acquires production output of other companies in the same industry
    7) Share/describe an example of labor strife/strike during the Gilded Age, for example a picket or protest or strike. (For example, read about the railroad strike in your texts.) An example of such strikes was the Great Strike that occurred in the 1877. The strike arose because of the pressures of economic depression. The powerful and big corporations such as railroad reduced the wages of their workers something that resulted to the strike. The strike affected many cities such as Chicago, St. Louis, West Virginia, Martinsburg and Pittsburgh that was highly affected.  At least 20 people died and 29 were wounded.

8) What’s the difference between the Knights of Labor and the American Federation of Labor?  Knights of labor was the first inclusive movement to be formed as it  admitted unskilled workers, women, and children and were damaged in Haymarket 1886. While on the other hand, American Federation of Labor was formed mainly to agitate for pay issues, worker and safety. The movement workers were mostly iron and steel workers. AFL was formal federation as opposed to Knights Labor that was secretive.
9) What were “political machines” in big cities? Corporations (group of organized politicians) that sponsored elective leaders to get avenues to engage in corrupt deals through government contracts.
10) What did Bryan mean by a “cross of gold”? What was his political argument? He meant the suffering of the citizens due to challenges in the currency system. His political argument was that the government was not doing its best to stabilize the economy to ensure that farmers, industrial workers, and miners lead bett

Reference

Green, J. (2014). Industrial Economy: crash course US history. Retrieved from
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r6tRp-            zRUJs&list=PL8dPuuaLjXtMwmepBjTSG593eG7ObzO7s&index=26

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Marketing Audit Research Paper Available

Marketing Audit
Marketing Audit

Marketing Audit

Order Instructions:

This paper is continuation of 111486 and also 111516 so its critical that the writer reference back to all this other papers to be able to complete this paper. The writer will have to clearly discuss each points in the questions following closely the instructions in the questions. The writer must clearly respond to each point using them as subheadings.

Marketing Audit

Identify an individual in your chosen organization to be interviewed who has knowledge of the questions below and use the responses for the purposes of this week’s assignment or use information gathered through last week’s interview if the person gave information patterning to the questions below. She or he should be an individual who understands the organization’s strategic use of marketing activities to achieve competitive advantage in the marketplace and is willing to meet with you to discuss these initiatives. Complete the marketing function and strategy audit from information gathered in your interview.

Marketing Function and Strategy Audit

each of the following main areas needs to be addressed as a part of this audit; the questions listed are only guidelines to help you gather the essential information to assist in your analysis. It is important to cover each particular topic, but in a way that is most meaningful for the organization that you have selected.

When the questions result in a simple affirmative or negative answer, please elaborate on how you reached your conclusion.

Marketing Function Audit

1. Products

• What are the company’s product line objectives?
• What areas of product and brand strategy need improvement?

2. Price

• What are the company’s pricing objectives, policies, strategies, and procedures?

3. Distribution

• What are the company’s distribution objectives and strategies?
• Is there adequate market coverage and service?

4. Integrated Marketing

Communications
• What are the organization’s advertising objectives?
• Are the advertising media well chosen?
• Is there effective and sufficient use of sales promotion tools such as samples, coupons, displays, and sales contests?
• How is the company using direct, online, and database marketing?

Strategy Audit

1. Business Mission

• Is the business mission clearly stated in market-oriented terms?
• Is it feasible?

2. Marketing Objectives and Goals

• Are the company and marketing objectives and goals stated clearly enough to guide marketing planning and performance measurement?

• Are the marketing objectives appropriate, given the company’s competitive position, resources, and opportunities?

3. Strategy

• Has the management articulated a clear marketing strategy for achieving its marketing objectives?

• Has the company developed an effective positioning and marketing mix for each target segment?
Write a summary (3 minimum pages) of your findings and analysis in the marketing function and strategy audit. Use each numbered item as a heading for your paper. You should also review the scholarly literature so that you are able to include a description of the significance of the marketing audit in your completed Paper. You may also wish to review the scholarly literature to help you gain insights into any of the major issues you identify for your selected organization.

Resources

Course Text

• Marketing Management

o Chapter 6, “Analyzing Consumer Markets”
This chapter focuses on ways to analyze a consumer market and identify factors that influence customer decision-making.

o Chapter 7, “Analyzing Business Markets”

This chapter compares and contrasts business and consumer markets and then elaborates on the different needs that must be taken into consideration for business markets.

Chapter 8, “Identifying Market Segments and Targets”

This chapter describes specific market segments, the different levels of the segments, and the various characteristics that may be analyzed, such as geographical, demographical, and behavioral within a particular consumer group.

Article

• Prahalad, C., & Ramaswamy, V. (2004). Co-creation experiences: The next practice in value creation. Journal of Interactive Marketing, 18(3), 5–14. Retrieved from Business Source Premier database.

Beverland, M., Napoli, J., & Yakimova, R. (2007). Branding the business marketing offer: Exploring brand attributes in business markets. Journal of Business & Industrial Marketing, 22(6), 394–399. doi:10.1108/08858620710780154

The authors of this article describe a framework they have developed for creating a strong brand identity.

• Fugate, D. (2007). Neuromarketing: A layman’s look at neuroscience and its potential application to marketing practice. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 24(7), 385–394. doi:10.1108/07363760710834807

This article describes a new science, that of neuromarketing, which involves trying to determine what is actually occurring in the brain while an individual is making decisions about purchasing a product.

Szmigin, I., Canning, L., & Reppel, A. (2005). Online community: Enhancing the relationship marketing concept through customer bonding. International Journal of Service Industry Management, 16(5), 480–497. doi:10.1108/09564230510625778

In this paper, the authors describe service value, technical infrastructure, and interactivity as the elements that assist in creating customer bonding in online communities.

SAMPLE ANSWER

Introduction

Nike, Inc is one of the multinational enterprises in the United States of America that designs and also manufactures sports apparels, foot wares, equipments among other accessories. Its major production subsidiary is Converse Inc, a company that specializes in designing and distribution of casual apparels, foot ware, and other personal sports outfits. Hurley International Company, specialiases in designing, marketing and distribution of sports ware and equipment for the youth.

Marketing Function Audit

1. Products

Nike’s product line objective is based on performance oriented strategy that seeks to manufacture foot ware’s and sports apparels that can endure the rigorous training and competition pressures to achieve top most performance for their clients. For clients who purchase the products for casual use, Nike Inc aims at providing the best apparels and foot wares that is based on extensive research on personal performance and comfort.

Nike Inc product and brand overall strategy is mostly based on sports performance where a major of its revenues are derived from. But the overall casual market for its products is far larger than the sports market. More product branding and strategy should be focused on the casual market to achieve higher sales on the emerging market.

2. Price

Nike’s pricing objective are based on the competitive market that also aims at providing the best sporting and casual foot ware and apparel in the market. Nike products are priced slightly higher above its competitors due to its products higher quality and endurance aspects of its products. Its pricing policy is based on value for the price offered but occasional its marketing strategists conducts assessments on the overall market reaction to its prices in various parts of the world using different sampling procedures especially in the US which provides almost 45% of its total revenues.

Distribution

Nike’s Converse Inc specializes in designing and distribution of casual apparels, foot ware, and other personal sports outfits for the general public and sportsmen while Hurley International Company, specialiases in designing, marketing and distribution of sports ware and equipment for the youth, colleges and other sports events for teenagers. Besides the wholesale customers, Nike also sells directly to customers through the Direct Consumer Operations. Nike has a global presence in most of the countries worldwide and its marketing strategy is very effective and adequate. (Beverland, Napoli & Yakimova, 2007) Its product is available to most of its consumers globally besides the normal orders that can be placed under the Direct Consumer operations. (Hauser, 2007)

Integrated Marketing

Nike has won the Emmy Award for best commercial on two occasions in the years 2000 and 2002. (Nike Annual Report, 2003)  Its advertising objective is to create a trademark that is associated with excellence performance in the track and field for athletes and other sportsmen and women and also for casual use.

The advertising media for Nike is well chosen and effective. The decision to use sports celebrities to market and promote its products and also to demonstrate the performance of their technology and design is proving to be the best decision. Nike Inc signed in the NBA player Mike Jordan, in the year 1984, and its revenues increased dramatically hence the introduction of the Jordan brand name in one of its foot ware products. (Beverland, Napoli & Yakimova, 2007)   Nike adopted the internet and email marketing management technologies since its inception in the early 2000 and it’s currently using the broadcast and narrowcast satellite communication technologies to drive its multimedia marketing campaigns. (Schibrowsky, Peltier & Nill, 2007; Szmigin, Canning & Reppel, 2005)

Strategy Audit

1. Business mission

Nike business mission is clearly stated in market oriented terms and represented wholly by its trademark in all its designs. (Nike Annual Report, 2013) In the year 2010, the value of its brand alone was estimated to be worth more than $10.7 billion. Nike’s brand name is very feasible and it actually leads its sales. Its trademark represents all its mission strategies and accomplishments.

Marketing Objectives and Goals

Nike’s marketing objectives and its goals are well stated, adequately enough to plan its marketing and performance operations to facilitate global expansion and achieve highest returns. Nike’s athletic foot wares for example, are aimed at providing specific athletic use and they have been designed with the same purpose in mind. (Prahalad & Ramaswamy, 2004)

The company’s objective is appropriate given its competitive nature and huge resources and opportunities available. These can be confirmed from its huge revenues that are derived from its sales revenues and the popularity of its products. In the year 2012, Nike posted more than $24.1 billion dollars in its total revenues.

Strategy

The management of Nike Inc has a clear strategy of achieving its marketing objectives. The US forms its target segment with an estimated 45% of its entire revenues coming from the US alone; its major strategies are tailored for the American market. Product positioning refers to the development and marketing of the company’s products brand as the true and real images of the company’s major product. (Kotler & Keller, 2012)  To form an impressive strategy, Nike has chosen a communication strategy that is unique and competitive to the nature of its products. The use of sports celebrities as its promotion strategy has created an effective marketing strategy. (Nike, 2014) Most of its customers view the Nike brand as an epitome of success something which influences its pricing policy. (O D’Esopo & Almquist, 2007).  It’s a process known as brand equity and it occurs where the company’s loyal customers are even more willing to pay much more to obtain their choice of product mostly because of its positioning in the market.

References

Beverland, M., Napoli, J. & Yakimova, R. (2007) Branding the business marketing offer: Exploring brand attributes in business markets. Journal of Business & Industrial Marketing, 22(6), 394–399. Doi: 10.1108/08858620710780154

Hauser, W. (2007) Marketing analytics: The evolution of marketing research in the twenty-first century, direct Marketing, 1(1), 38–54. Doi: 10.1108/17505930710734125

Kotler, P. & Keller, K. (2012) Marketing management, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall.

Lee, N. & Broderick, A. (2007) The past, present, and future of observational research in marketing. Qualitative Market Research, 10(2), 121–129. Doi: 10.1108/13522750710740790

Nike Annual Report (2003) http://www.annualreportowl.com/Nike/2003/Annual%20Report

Nike Annual Report (2013) http://www.annualreportowl.com/Nike/2013/Annual%20Report

Nike. (2014) Strategy, Available at http://www.nikebiz.com/crreport/content/strategy/2-1-1-corporate-responsibility-strategy-overview.php?cat=cr-strategy (Accessed September 4, 2014).

O D’Esopo, M., & Almquist, E. (2007). An approach to mastering the marketing mix. Business Strategy Series, 8(2), 122–131. Retrieved from Proquest Central database.

Prahalad, C. & Ramaswamy, V. (2004) Co-creation experiences: The next practice in value creation. Journal of Interactive Marketing, 18(3), 5–14. Retrieved from Business Source Premier Data base.

Schibrowsky, J., Peltier, J., & Nill, A. (2007). The state of Internet marketing research: A review of the literature and future research directions. European Journal of Marketing, 41(7/8), 722–733. Doi: 10.1108/03090560710752366

Szmigin, I., Canning, L. & Reppel, A. (2005) online community: Enhancing the relationship marketing concept through customer bonding. International Journal of Service Industry Management, 16(5), 480–497. Doi: 10.1108/09564230510625778

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Advantages and Inconvenience of Road Sharing

Advantages and Inconvenience of Road Sharing
Advantages and Inconvenience of Road Sharing

Advantages and Inconvenience of Road Sharing

Order Instructions:

Write and essay about Road sharing between bicyclists and motorists, advantages and inconvenient. It should be elaborate using proper grammatical terms.

SAMPLE ANSWER

Advantages and Inconvenience of Road Sharing

Different countries and states have different laws pertaining to how cyclists and motorists should share roads to ensure safety. Both the cyclists as well as motorists have a right to use the roads to move from point A to B. This discussion investigates on the advantages and inconveniences of road sharing between the motorists and cyclists.

A number of advantages exist when bicyclists and motorists share the same road. One of them is that it helps to improve the level of maturity of the drivers and bicyclists as drivers and riders become more careful. The level of responsible driving is improved because drivers are required to drive safely putting into consideration the lives of riders (Commute Orlando.com. 2014).  Therefore, a sense of responsibility tends to improve. Another advantage is that the cyclists get to enjoy their rights especially those that ride as a hobby as well those that use bicycles as means of their transport.  The level of pollution as a result of emissions from motorists reduce to some levels promoting a healthy environment.

On the other hand, sharing road between cyclists and motorists has a number of inconveniences. One of the inconveniences is increased conflict between the drivers and riders. It becomes a challenge for many riders and drivers specially when turning, and crossing roads and during traffic jams (Commute Orlando.com. 2014). The rate of accidents are likely to increase as most of the times drivers disregard motorists. Some drivers have a mentality that cyclists are not supposed to use roads and this contributes to injuries and accidents. Furthermore, sharing of road between the motorists and bicyclists increase instances of traffic jams especially in urban centers. The motorists in such instances may end up spending more time on roads, which affects their productivity.

In conclusion, even though bicyclists and motorists are required to share roads, both must respect each other. The advantage of road sharing is that it improves the level of carefulness, which may help to reduce accidents as everyone becomes responsible. However, sharing roads causes inconveniences such as delays and increases risks of injuries and accidents

Reference

Commute Orlando.com. (2014). Understanding infrastructure. Retrieved from:             http://commuteorlando.com/advocacy/facilities.html

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