Relationship between Research and Theory Order Instructions: How Research Contributes to Theory

how theory adds or may add to our understanding of your field and/or research

Question 1: Theory

Theories play a vitally important role in guiding research and organizing and making sense of research findings. In spite of the great importance of theory-building and theory testing within your field of specialization, there is no generally accepted conception of what a theory is. Because your dissertation must contribute to theory, you must have a clear understanding of the variety of conceptions of theory, types of theories, and ways of contributing to theory and be able to justify how, exactly, your study contributes to theory.

Part 1
Using Gelso (2006), Harlow (2009), Stam, H. (2007, 2010), Wacker (1999), and five additional peer-reviewed articles from your specialization, discuss scholarly views on the nature and types of theory. Compare and contrast at least three views of what constitutes a theory, including the view you will use in Part 3 of this question. Be sure to distinguish theory from related concepts, such as hypothesis, paradigm, model, and concept.

Part 2
Using Ellis & Levy (2008), Harlow, E. (2009), and five additional peer-reviewed articles, review the scholarly literature on the relationship between theory and research and the ways research (quantitative and qualitative) can contribute to theory. Discuss at least three ways research can contribute to theory.

Part 3
Pick a theory (in one of the views of what constitutes a theory that you identified in Part 1) of current interest directly related to the topic area of your dissertation. A theory is currently of interest if there are articles published on it in the past five years. Using at least 10 published, peer-reviewed research articles:

1. Explain how the theory adds or may add to our understanding of your field and/or research topic.

2. Discuss and analyze the literature on two areas of controversy or unanswered questions related to the theory.

The structure of your paper should be as follows:
Title page
Body (10-15 pages, no more or less; APA Style; use appropriate headings for organization of the paper)
References (APA Style)

Learning Outcomes:
1. Compose a theoretically sound and conceptually rich essay that demonstrates knowledge of fundamental subject areas of a student’s academic discipline and specialization.

Question 2: Practical Application

Your dissertation research must contribute to theory. Your research and the theory to which it contributes may or may not have a practical benefit or application. There is no doubt, however, that there is a theory in your dissertation topic area that does have a practical application.

Part 1
Referencing at least five peer-reviewed journal articles or scholarly books, discuss views on the relationship between theory and application or practice. How can theory guide or inform practice? What are the issues involved in translating theory into practice? Be sure to keep in mind the various conceptions of theory you discussed in Question 1.

Part 2
Referencing at least five peer-reviewed journal articles, fully describe a theory of current interest in your topic area. A theory is currently of interest if there are articles published on it in the past five years. This theory may or may not be the same as the one you examined in Question 1, Part 3. Describe a current view of the theory, not the founder’s view or a classic view. Your answer should be no more than three pages long.

Part 3
Identify at least five scholarly articles (published in the last 5 years) that address how the theory you discussed in Part 2 has actually been applied. (Draw on your response to Part 1 in order to define what you mean by an application of theory to an actual problem or situation.) Critically evaluate the appropriateness of the uses to which the theory has been applied. Consider, for example: Are the applications premised upon an accurate understanding of the theory and its scope? Do the applications “go beyond” what the theory claims? Is the reasoning linking application and theory sound?

The structure of your paper should be as follows:
Title page
Body (10-15 pages, no more or less; APA Style; use appropriate headings for an organization of the paper)
References (APA Style)

Learning Outcomes:
2. Critique existing research and design a methodologically sound approach to research in the student’s academic specialization.
Question 3: Research

The ability to read, understand, critique, and integrate research studies and to design a study to address a gap in the research literature is a vital tool for a doctoral student. As you write your dissertation, you may be reading hundreds of studies, many of which you will evaluate as part of a coherent literature review.

Select five empirical articles from peer-reviewed journals that:
• you consider critical to your understanding of your area of dissertation research
• all address a particular phenomenon and attempt to contribute to theory about it

Part 1
1. Describe each study, including:
• the research problem, questions, or hypotheses
• the research purpose
• type of design and elements of the design (e.g., sample, data analysis, the operationalization of constructs)
• threats to validity and if and how they were addressed
• the findings and their implications

2. Critically evaluate each study: Does the author make a compelling case for the meaning and significance of the findings?

Part 2
Write a literature review that explains what is known and not known about the phenomenon based on a critical evaluation of the five studies.

Part 3
Develop a research question that addresses one of the unknowns you identified in Part 2 and sketch a quantitative or qualitative study that can answer the question about what is unknown and contribute to theory (in some sense of theory you discuss in Question 1).

Address:
• the research purpose
• type of design and elements of the design (e.g., sample, the type of data you need to collect and how you will collect it, data analysis)
• the strengths and weaknesses of your envisioned design and methods
• quantitative: threats to validity and how your design will address them
• quantitative: the constructs you will measure and what you will do in order to determine how to operationalize them (you need not identify specific measures)
• qualitative: your means of ensuring the quality of your findings
• justification for why your chosen design and methods are more appropriate for your research question than alternatives you have considered
• your methods of data analysis
• how the data you collect will enable you to answer your research question and contribute to theory

Draw on the additional resources for this course for guidance in understanding the concepts (e.g., internal validity, threats to validity, and operationalization) needed to address this question.

The structure of your paper should be as follows:
Title page
Body (10-15 pages, no more or less; APA Style; use appropriate headings for organization of the paper)
References (APA Style)
Learning Outcomes:
3. Apply relevant theory and research from the student’s specialization coursework to real life situations where he or she solves specific problems and discusses implications.
Question 4: Ethics

As you know, scientific research must be conducted in accordance with ethical principles. The ethical principles of research are defined in:

Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct
Standard 8: Research and Publication
http://www.apa.org/ethics/code/index.aspx

The National Academy Of Sciences, National Academy Of Engineering, and Institute Of Medicine Of The National Academies have a more detailed and comprehensive set of ethical guidelines for scientific research:

Committee on Science, Engineering, and Public Policy (U.S.), National Academy of Sciences (U.S.), National Academy of Engineering., & Institute of Medicine (U.S.). (2009) On being a scientist: A guide to responsible conduct in research, (3rd ed.). Washington, D.C: National Academies Press.
http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=12192

Write a paper in which you discuss how you will ensure that all aspects of your doctoral research, from literature review to conducting research, to writing the dissertation manuscript will be done with care and integrity and will meet the ethical standards of scientific research. Reference the two publications above and at least five additional peer-reviewed articles.

You must justify all the steps you will take to ensure the ethical integrity of your dissertation project and not simply describe the standard practice. You must show that you have your own clear set of ethical principles and that you know how to apply them to your work. You must do more than just paraphrase ethical guidelines. You must explain specifically how you will apply published ethical guidelines and concepts to what you will do in your research (as you envision it at this point).

Be sure to address the following:
• Plagiarism
• Risk assessment
• Informed consent
• Privacy and confidentiality
• Data handling and reporting
• Mistakes and negligence
• Working with a Mentor
• Northcentral University requirements for IRB approval

Conclude your paper with your thoughts on the following statement:

Ethical scientific researchers have a commitment to all who are touched by their research—participants who share their lives and time, mentors and advisors, reviewers, future readers, and supporters and cheerleaders on the journey—to take care and do their work well.

The structure of your paper should be as follows:
Title page
Body (10-15 pages, no more or less; APA Style; use appropriate headings for organization of the paper)
References (APA Style)

Learning Outcomes:
4. Integrate knowledge of ethical practices with principles of professional practice as it applies to specific scenarios within the student’s academic discipline and specialization.

Relationship between Research and Theory Sample Answer

Question 1

Using Gelso (2006), Harlow (2009), Stam, H. (2007), 2010), Wacker (1999), and five additional peer reviewed articles from your specialization, discuss scholarly views on the nature and types f theory.  Compare and contrast at least three views of what constitutes a theory, including the view you will use in Part 3 of this question.  Be sure to distinguish theory from related concepts, such as hypothesis, paradigm, model, and concept.

 Theory

Comprehending theory and how it relates to research is undoubtedly a challenging task and has literally rendered some doctoral candidates to feel confused and incompetent.   Contrasting definitions of theory may be at the center of the confusion and the difficulty in distinguishing theory from research (Kiley, 2015).  Despite the confusion, many scholars agree that theory has a place in research while others contend that theory is useless in the real world (Wacker, 1998).  Through this paper an examination will be provided of the role of theory in research through identification and exploration of scholarly views.  In addition, the paper will provide a discussion of the contribution of research to theory, and provide tangible examples of contributions of theory to the field of business administration.  In scholarly research, theory forms an integral part since it provides both guidelines and enables the researcher to explore the relationships between the phenomena.  However, irrespective of the recognizable imperativeness of theory in research, there is no universal agreement among scholars concerning what constitutes a theory (Harlow, 2009).

What Constitutes Theory       

Derivation of the word theory is entrenched in a Greek verb that means to contemplate (Fischer, Winter & Wortmann, 2010).  Despite the fact that there may be disagreements among scholars concerning theoretical finer points, they all universally agree on the basic constitution of a theory by reiterating that, a theory describes a phenomenon and the subsequent interactions of the phenomenon variables that are used in an attempt to provide an explanation or prediction.  However, in striving for finer clarifications of a theory, views of scholars are varied on the basics that constitute a theory, purpose of the theory, as well as what a good theory should necessitate (Gelso, 2006; Harlow, 2009; Stam, 2007, 2010).

According to Galtung (1985), a theory can also be considered to be a group of generalizations that are related and indicating observations that are new, which can be subjected to empirical testing in order to provide an explanation or prediction.  Littlejohn (1989) claimed that any attempt towards explaining or creating an aspect’s representation of reality should be considered a theory.  Further, a theory can be considered as the organization of knowledge in a systematic way, with potential applications in solving real life problems (Fendt & Sachs, 2008; Ng & Hase, 2008).  Fendt & Sachs (2008) and Ng & Hase (2008) also assert that grounded theory is imperative research methodology in providing a qualitative approach for theory development in business management and/or administration. Considering the complexity of a theory, there has been confusion between a theory and its components, constructs or the theorizing process by some people (Gay & Weaver, 2011).  However, it is crucial to ensure that a theory is differentiated from the terms related to it such as paradigm, hypothesis, concept as well as a model.

According to Malmi and Granlund (2009), a framework of worldview or beliefs is referred to as a paradigm that is utilized in the definition of values and boundaries or methods for research.  Paradigms can be used in defining what is imperative or not and the possibilities or impossibilities in a research, meaning that they are comparable to overarching philosophies and present a significant theoretical view of a phenomenon (Gay & Weaver, 2011).  Fischer, Winter & Wortmann (2010) stated that, an educated guess with its corresponding predictive value(s) concerning the working outcome of something based on observation or existing knowledge is what is known as hypothesis.  In contrast, National Academy of Sciences (1999) outlined that a theory is a strongly unified and substantiated explanation for a set of hypotheses that are proven.  In addition, a hypothesis must be able to be specifically tested and representing a single component, while a theory is not.  Gelso (2006) stated that theory provides extensive explanation of a phenomenon while a hypothesis has a narrow focus.  For example, a theory is used as the basis to hypothesize a phenomenon, while a hypothesis delves in specific testing of a particular assertion concerning the phenomenon.

Furthermore, Malmi and Granlund (2009) emphasized that a model is a tool utilized to enable construction of a theory, and is typically a graphic or written representation of the theory either partially or as a whole.  This means that a model does not elucidate components of a theory, but only provides a method or approach through which a theory can be explored (Malmi and Granlund, 2009).  For example, when research involves working on a theory with regards to nuclear fusion, a molecular model may be constructed as a method to facilitate the research.  As a result, the constructed model can be helpful to investigate the positioning and interactions of atoms, however using the model singly is not capable of providing explanations (Gelso, 2009).

According to Malmi and Granlund (2009) a building block within which construction of theory is based, is called a theoretical concept. Concept explains descriptions or interpretations of data, literally comparison of the items under study, or associations to one another are examined (Malmi and Granlund, 2009).  An example is when education is a concept describing the overall learning experience of a person.  Gelso (2006) states that concepts are broad and tested ideas within the theory that facilitates in developing the theory, particularly in the context of the conceptual framework.

Nevertheless, considerations when attempting to answer the question on what constitutes a theory is not straightforward and simple as various scholars have penned (Gelso, 2006; Harlow, 2009).  Scholars have provided varied views concerning what defines a theory, especially when the discussions are more detailed concerning what constitutes a theory.  For instance, Gelso (2008) describes a theory as combinations of varied constructs including explanatory power, descriptive ability, heuristic value, integration, testability, parsimony, comprehensiveness, clarity, as well as delimitation.  His believe was that actual refinement of a theory is through research and succinct understanding of its constructs (Gelso, 2008).  In contrast, Harlow (2009) suggested that theory may be used to determine a law or a set of laws.  Harlow (2009) provided four distinct constructs of a theory which are: (a) definitions, (b) a set of variables relationship, (c) a domain of applicability, and (d) factual claims or specific predictions.

Also when the discussions on the formulation of a theory are considered, it is revealed that scholars have varied views.  According to Stam (2007), there are three views that affect theory which for many decades have been significantly influential and they are: (a) reductionism, (b) instrumentalism, as well as (c) realism.  According to Burgelman (2011) and Stam (2007) reductionism is defined as a view stating that complex systems are composed by a mere sum of the respective parts.  Understanding of the system of reductionism is obtained through examination of the individual parts of the system singly or independently (Burgelman 2011; Stam 2000).  As a result, reductionists strive to make complex items or systems more easily and clearly understandable through a study of their individual parts and/or components independently or singly (Burgelman, 2011; Nadler, 2004; Stam 2000).  By breaking down the parts or components of a system, reductionists usually envision a realization of a new view or perspective of the system base as well as interactions of its components.

Nadler (2004) was critical in providing the four guiding principles used in reductionist approach and/or method. For instance, all things or systems are separable into their respective components or parts.  Reductionist approach also state that there are substitutes to any of the separated components or parts of systems or things, and partial problems solutions may be helpful in solving a problem as a whole.  Furthermore, the entity as a whole is the sum of its parts or components and nothing more (Nadler, 2004).  Thus, reductionists advocate for the consideration of each part or component of a theory singly.

According to Malmi and Granlund (2009), instrumentalism stated that the usefulness of theory instruments is entrenched in the worldview understanding and the best definition of the theory is merely through its instruments and nothing more.  Essentially, an evaluation of the theory should be based on its ability for utilization in predicting or explaining a phenomenon instead of the ability of utilizing it in reality depiction (Malmi and Granlund, 2009).  For example, consider the view of an acupuncture examination.  Some individuals may swear by the effects of acupuncture although they may not believe in the art expressed principles, such as Ki energy.  Thus, instrumentalists are likely to say that as long as it works, it does not matter why or how it works.

The third view provided by Stam (2007) is realism, which has become significantly influential in the development of theory.  Realists believe that descriptions of the world can be provided in terms of science, based on assumptions that the world has a real view, which is distinct and independent of perceptions held by people.  As a result, realists are generally fond of asserting that one is capable of making predictions that are reliable about un-observable phenomenon.  A good example of the application of realism view might be considered to be the Copernicus’ heliocentric theory in which the Earth’s revolution was predicted by Copernicus by stating that it revolved around the sun although during that time there was no way in which the phenomenon could be observed.  Thus, it is evident that theory and research are intertwined and coexist making it imperative to elucidate the relationship between the two and the contribution of research to theory.

Relationship between Research and Theory and How Research Contributes to Theory

The purpose of theory that is accepted by many is that of explaining or predicting (Ellis & Levy, 2008; Harlow, 2009).  Theory is used in conceptualizing and providing explanations to a set of observations recorded systematically concerning the phenomena as well as complex behaviors.  According to Ellis & Levy (2008), a research forms the basis for the process through which data is collected and analyzed in order to ensure new knowledge is developed.  Harlow (2009) stated that the creation of the term reductionism was to provide a description of the interplay between theory and research.  Furthermore, the definition of reductionism is that it is the cyclical process where theoretical ideas are tested by a researcher against new data that emerges.  Subsequently reframing those ideas or retesting the ideas up to a point is necessary to confirm the resulting conclusions are considered trustworthy (Harlow, 2009).  Gay and Weaver (2011) concurred with the arguments of Ellis and Levy (2008) as well as Harlow’s (2009) stance by reiterating that there is a tendency of incremental contribution of research knowledge to theory by building upon as well as adding to an existing lexicon of facts.  Defining the problem acts as the point of connection between theory and research.  The strategy and path of the research is provided by the theory to be tested (Harlow, 2009).

There are two major methods that enable the researcher to conduct the research and they include quantitative and qualitative research methods.  According to Creswell (2009), quantitative research is an empirical investigation of phenomena using statistical and mathematical techniques.  In contrast, qualitative research attempts to collect data aimed at understanding the deeper meaning concerning complexities surrounding human interactions (Du & Kamakura, 2012).  The two methods are utilized in conducting research and they have varied contributions to the development of theory.

Aliaga and Gunderson (2005) stated that quantitative research explains phenomena through collection of numerical data which is subsequently subjected to analysis using statistical and mathematical methods.  Through quantitative data analysis methods, collected data is converted into measurable form thereby creating a chance for easier way of categorization and working with the collected data.  According to Aliaga and Gunderson (2005), the concept of data categorization is equivalent to the manner through which computers undertake conversion of all data to binary constructs.  Categorization of the data gives the researcher an opportunity to use complex data sets in answering specific questions (Aliaga & Gunderson 2005).  The contribution to theory through quantitative research method is entrenched in the fact that, it provides specific and measurable ways of viewing, accessing, and analyzing the collected data.  The measurability and specificity of quantitative research methods contributes to theory development by enabling trend spotting (Du & Kamakura, 2012).

According to Creswell (2009), qualitative research methods are used to gather information from subjects with the aim to better understand behaviors of human beings and the possible reasons attributable to identified human behaviors.  In conducting qualitative research, a central question is usually the starting point of the study rather than a prediction (Creswell, 2009).  The researcher subsequently strives to answer the questions by essentially attempting to gain an understanding of why the phenomenon under consideration was observed (Creswell, 2009).  Doz (2011) emphasized that qualitative research is utilized in an attempt to get more knowledge concerning the subjects selected by the research for the study.

The contribution of qualitative research to theory occurs in many ways.  For instance, qualitative research is used in providing succinct descriptions of an observed phenomenon, and generates in-depth explanations to the same (Eisenhardt, 1989).  Doz (2011) stated that since an iterative process is used in theory development, qualitative research methods are likely to enable the refinement of key concepts as well as results through the additional insights provided.  Testing of theory is also done through qualitative methods by using alternative theoretical lenses in the investigation of phenomenon for additional insights into the theory and subsequent interactions of its variables (Du & Kamakura, 2012).  Moreover, case study research methods that involve the adoption of qualitative research methods have high potential to generate novel theory (Eisenhardt, 1989).

Generally, there exist a number of ways through which research contributes to theory.   For instance, it is through the creation of theory whereby formulation of a theory can be based on research observations.  Research can be used in theory validation as well as in refuting a theory.  However, there is a need for specific application of research in order to validate or refute an existing theory.  Moreover, research can also be used in providing additional insights into components of a theory thereby facilitating further refinement of the theory (Doz, 2011 & Du & Kamakura, 2012).

Example of How a View of Theory Adds to the Field and My Chosen Dissertation Topic

Out of the three views identified in Part 1 of this question as offered by Stam (2007) including reductionism, instrumentalism, and realism; reductionism has the potential of making significant contributions to the proposed research study.  Reductionism has been widely applied in making significant contributions to the field of business (Stam 2000).  The proposed topic of this research study is, “The Adverse Effects of Welfare Reform on Public Housing Authorities.” The findings of this study will potentially be utilized for contribution to the existing body of knowledge within the area of dissertation topic based on the reductionism paradigm application.  The Department of Housing and Urban Development administers Temporary Assistance to Needy Families (TANF) and Public Housing (HHS, 2013).  While both programs have been reformed over the years TANF’s reformations have had an adverse effect on public housing.  The proposed study will advance knowledge by exploring the effects of leadership bias in decision making and how those bias effect decisions regarding reformation and funding.

The proposed research will utilize a qualitative study and reductionist research methods to gain an understanding of the adverse effects attributed to welfare reform on Public Housing Authorities.  Application of reductionism methods to the study will be vital in providing valuable insights into the adverse effects attributed to welfare reform on Public Housing Authorities by considering specific welfare reforms.  Examining this component singly is essential in shedding light on components of welfare reforms and possibly adds to the body of knowledge around adverse effects attributed to welfare reforms, and this data will be useful in adding to the body of knowledge of business administration and the real estate industry.  The use of reductionism will also offer an opportunity to explore management decisions made regarding two programs administered through the Department of Health and Human Services, Public Housing and Temporary Assistance to Needy Families (TANF).  Management of each organization will be examined to identify how reformation is guided by leaders.  The study will also examine leaders/managements roles in decisions regarding reformation of programs.

Even though reductionism is undoubtedly the most appropriate research method to effectively address the proposed study, this view has been subject to a considerable extent of criticism. There are two issues with reductionism that researchers must consider prior to the research study (Nadler (2004).  For instance, all things or systems are reducible to their respective parts or components. Also reductionism in not an effective method when complex social systems are considered, in particular those that involve feedback loops.

Relationship between Research and Theory Conclusion

In conclusion, it is worthwhile to note that theory and research concepts are undeniably broad and far reaching even though they are interrelated.  Also there have been disagreements among scholars on their view of the nature and application of theory as well as research, particularly across academic disciplines.  However, there seems to be a universal concurrence among all scholars with regards to the importance of the cycle in which theory and research coexist.

In addition, theory plays a vital role in providing a method for the prediction of the interactions of phenomena variables, whereas research is critical in enabling the testing of theory as well as discovering new observations.  As a result, this interrelationship which exists between theory and research is without any doubt, an engine that is fundamentally helpful in the production of new knowledge across academic and professional fields.  Researchers will inevitably need to assess themselves which should include areas of vulnerable areas which may bias the research study.

The demand for research is fueled by increasing needs of society to explore new depths or to examine previous research.  In response to researcher’s curiosity new methods of research and data collection will be in demand.  As these new methods and/or techniques are adopted by researchers and new knowledge is gained studies will require new techniques.  Older theories and research methods and/or techniques even those dogged with controversies will contribute to research when used appropriately.  Students must be vigilant in their efforts to understand what a theory is and how theory should be used as a tool to guide and further new knowledge.  A clear understand of the use of theory and research that supports their research and subsequently contributes significantly to their respective academic and professional fields.

Relationship between Research and Theory References

Aliaga, M., & Gunderson, B. (2005). Interactive statistics, (3^rd ed.). Upper Saddle River,    NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.

Burgelman, R. A. (2011). Bridging history and reductionism: A key role for longitudinal qualitative research. Journal of International Business Studies, 42(5), 591-601.doi:10.1057/jibs.2011.12

Creswell, J. W. (2009). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Doz, Y. (2011). Qualitative research for international business.  Journal of International Business Studies, 42(5), 582-590. doi:10.1057/jibs2011.18

Du, R. Y., & Kamakura, W. A. (2012). Quantitative trend spotting.  Journal of Marketing Research, 49(4), 514-536. doi:10.1509/jmr.10.0167

Eisenhardt, K. (1989). Building theories from case study research. Academy of Management Review, 14(4), 532-550. http://aom.org/amr/

Ellis, T. J., & Levy, Y. (2008). Framework of problem-based research: A guide for novice researchers on the development of a research-worthy problem. Informing Science: The International Journal of an Emerging Transdiscipline, 11, 17-33. Retrieved from http://inform.nu/Articles/Vol11/ISJv11p017-033Ellis486.pdf

Fendt, J., & Saschs, W. (2008). Grounded theory method in management research: User’s perspectives. Organizational Research Methods, 11(3), 430-455. Retrieved from http://orm.sagepub.com/content/11/3/430.short

Fischer, C., Winter, R., & Wortmann, F. (2010). Design theory. Business & Information Systems Engineering, 2(6), 387-390. doi:10.1007/s12599-010-0128-2

Galtung, J. (1985). Theory and methods of social research. London: Gorge Allen & Unwin.

Gay, B., & Weaver, S. (2011). Theory building and paradigms: A primer on the nuances of theory construction.  American International Journal of Contemporary Research, 1(2),24-32. Retrieved from http://www.aijcrnet.com/

Gelso, C. (2006). Applying theories to research: The interplay of theory and research in science. In F. Leong, & J. Austin (Eds.), The psychology research handbook: A guide for graduate students and research assistants. (2^nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781412976626.n32

Harlow, E. (2010). Contribution, theoretical. In A. Mills, G. Durepos, & E. Wiebe (Eds.), Encyclopedia of case study research. (pp. 237-239). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781412957397.n89

Kiley, M. (2015). ‘I didn’t have a clue what they were talking about’: PhD candidates and theory. Innovations in Education and Teaching International, 52, 52-63. http://dx.doi.org/10 .1080/14703297.2014.981835.

Littlejohn, S. W. (1989). Theories of Human Communication, (3rd ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Malmi, T., & Granlund, M. (2009). In search of management accounting theory. European Accounting Review, 18(3), 597-210. doi:10.1080/09638180902863779

Nadler, G. (2004). Taking a holistic path.  Industrial Management, 46(6), 26-31.Retrieved fromhttp://law-journals-books.vlex.com

National Academy of Sciences (1999). Science and creationism, (2^nd ed.). Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

Ng, K., & Hase, S. (2008). Grounded suggestions for doing a grounded theory business research. Electronic Journal of Business Research Methods, 6(2), 155-170. Retrieved from http://www.groundedtheoryreview.com/

Stam, H. J. (2000). Theoretical psychology. In K. Pawlik, & M. Rosenzweig (Eds.), The international handbook of psychology. (pp. 551-570). London, England: Sage.

http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781848608399.n29

Stam, H. J. (2010). Theory. In N. J. Salkind (Ed.), Encyclopedia of research design (pp. 1499-1503). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781412961288.

1. S. Dept. of Health and Human Services [HHS]. (2013). Historical Highlights. Retrieved from: http://www.hhs.gov/

Wacker, J. G. (1998). A definition of theory: Research guidelines for different theory-building research methods in operations management. Journal of Operations Management, 16, 361-385. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0272-6963(98)00019-

Question 2

Referencing at least five peer-reviewed journal articles or scholarly books, discuss views on the relationship between theory and application or practice.  How can a theory guide or inform practice?  What are the issues involved in translating theory into practice?  Be sure to keep in mind the various conceptions of theory you discussed in Question 1.

Practical Application

A doctoral dissertation research study must contribute to theory even though it may or may not have practical application.  However, all research studies should increase the current level of knowledge or identify a gap in knowledge.  This paper will be used to discuss the relationship between theory and application.  The paper will also discuss translating theory into practice.  A current theory of interest will be discussed followed by its actual application in the area of business administration.

Views on the Relationship Between theory and practice or application

A theory is classification of knowledge methodically which can be functionally used to solve problems.  Stam (2007) further declared that theory provides information using mathematical terms in the natural sciences and logical terms in research concerned with social sciences.  In addition, Bedaub & Humphreys (2008) stated that a theory constitutes a set of details concerned with a specific theme which can be utilized as a tool for explaining, predicting, and understanding a particular phenomenon.  Typically, theories constitute a part of informed practice; and their usage in business administration varies depending on the nature of research to be carried out.  Theory also provides explanations of a particular phenomenon in a certain setting, while sometimes addressing practical problems.  The main focus of theory is entrenched in its practical application (Creswell, 2009).

There is a reciprocal relationship which exists between theory and practice.  This is attributable to the fact that the practice is incapable to stand on its own in absence of the theoretical questions that guide or inform the research (Stam, 2007; Stam, 2010).  While data can be collected during a research study, absence of a theory leaves a void and an inability to explain the various observed phenomena (Vickery & Thomson, 2004).  Furthermore, there exists a symbiotic relationship between theory and practice, in the sense that any advancement in one leads to an automatic need for the other to be modified.  This means that, if a theory is advanced from its previous form, this will likely result in advancement in practice to the same extent and vice versa (Creswell, 2009).  From this perspective, three main concepts exist that are related to theory and practical application as aforementioned in part one i.e. reductionism, instrumentalism, and realism.  These three concepts provide description of abstract ideas which provide explanations to the main data points during the process of placing together the content; this means that the power is in our hands, and the connection is that conditions of service entail their usage (Vickery & Thomson, 2004).  Lastly the production of facts is significantly influenced by the power of interests, and the financier as well as beneficiaries of the research.

Furthermore, the definition of the concept of ideology is that, it is a psychological effect with a tendency of either directly or indirectly influencing human behavior.  Human behavior may be influenced through alterations of their patterns of interaction or to make people think prospectively or retrospectively.  Prospectively or retrospectively thinking may cause people to think that they are either way more advanced or way more backwards in comparison to others (Stam, 2007).  Therefore, this implies that it is not likely to have a totally objective theory (Vickery & Thomson, 2004).  Ideologies have a high likelihood of influencing theories, subsequently affecting the relationship that exists between theory and practical applications of the theory.  One of the major influences to theory is values, which are defined as a set of norms, beliefs, and practices embraced by people.  Values involve the display of respect, dignity, and right of choice, privacy as well as the protection of those endangered from a possible hurt either from themselves or other people (Bedaub & Humphreys, 2008).  This implies that certain standards and principles must be adhered to in the application of theory to practice.

How Theory Informs/Guides Practice

To a greater extent practice across professions is guided or informed by the underlying theory and is determined by the recommendations and requirements of a specific expected outcome.  By doing so, a theory assumes the function of predicting outcomes.  The larger and widely researched theories are used in guiding or informing the practice of business administration including the organizational theory (Wacker, 1989).  In contrast, smaller theories are helpful in specific settings, especially in the interpretation of behavior or a set of behaviors manifested by a group of people.  Rappoport (2004) noted that theory informs or guides practice by providing insights into contextual interpretation of a behavior and for the creation of alternatives for new settings where conditions are different.  Therefore, theories inform or guide practice in the form of function, and for their development, the need to understand their background is inevitable (Wacker, 1989).

Issues Involved in Translating Theory into Practice

The translation of theory into practice is not always smooth.  A theory is used in providing explanations on how information is to be collected, analyzed, classified, stored, recovered, and disseminated, while ensuring that a framework for analysis is provided.  Considering that learning of business discipline is interrelated to learning other disciplines, dynamism has been exhibited in the sense that humans display intentional behavior, and therefore change the outcomes attributed to the practice of theory.  Human error is a contributing factor in translating theory into practice.  Since human beings operate the tools and techniques used in the collection, classification, analysis, storage, recovery, and dissemination of information, an increased likelihood of submitting biased information is inevitable.  In addition to human error independent perspectives and stereotypes of the researcher and others associates may create issues in translating theory into practice.  Individual bias regarding particular areas of study such as marital status, gender, and race, have significant effects on the results obtained from research.

Another issue that may affect the translation of theory into practice is the premise that theories only provide partial explanations of the system and not its entirety.  This means that when one part or component of the system is affected; all other parts or components are also affected hence the need for the system to be studied as a whole.  Alternatively, the basis of arguments by some theorists is on how the explanation has been provided.  The linguistic aspect is a concern in that it outlines the theory in a way that helps to answer questions, ultimately enhancing the reader’s understanding of the differences and similarities between two warring individuals (Bedaub & Humphreys, 2008).

A Theory of Current Interest

Scientific literature is considered to be the most imperative method of informing research of business administration discipline (Apel, 2011).  Salmon theory is of significant essence in aiding the interpretation and explanation of the evolution and emergence of the business discipline learning and it has undergone serial changes within the scientific philosophy since its inception in 1950 (Rothman & Greenland, 2005; Achinstein, 2010).  According to Bederson & Shneiderman (2003), there are existence diverse types of approaches such as predictive, generative, explanatory, and descriptive.  As a result, a theory of current interest to be considered in this paper is the explanatory theory.

According to Bedaub & Humphreys (2008) the Salmon theory is usually the one that deals with the current interest in the research and learning of business discipline.  It is universally believed that any explanation must have a link to the causative factors; therefore, for someone to provide explanations or elaborations concerning a certain event the need of first identifying its causes becomes inevitable (Achinstein, 2010).  According to Bedaub & Humphreys (2008) the permanently existing philosophical problem with regards to Salmon theory is the determination of the nature of causation.  This change is attributable to the philosophical linguistic turn.  Years later, there were concerted efforts by philosophers in attempting to understand the scope and nature of modern theoretical foundations of science (Achinstein, 2010; Bedaub & Humphreys, 2008).  There are usually precise predictions through explanatory theory of the relationships between features.  Salmon theory captures an event that occurred or the differences that exist between groups dealing with the cause effects as well as the reasons of a particular event to occur, together with the accompanying change (Achinstein, 2010).  Therefore, the development of the Salmon theory was after the development of the two theories aforementioned i.e. the relational and descriptive theories.

The Salmon theory has the potential of providing explanations from two points of view or perspective either from a realistic or the anti-realistic point of view of examination.  In the context, of Salmon theory, the realistic perspective posits that there is a literal reality description of whatever entity that exists (Apel, 2011).  On the other hand, the point of view of anti-realists is that there is no necessarily literal existence of such entities.  However, they have usefulness in the human experiences’ organization and for the facilitation of constructing consistent empirical models (Bederson & Shneiderman, 2003).  In particular, Hempels theory of explanation is concerned with the anti-logical form, and does not mention how the event being explained or elaborated on and the corresponding facts that proponents of the theory allege to provide of the event are connected (Bedaub & Humphreys, 2008).  Radical results are usually produced by these theories of explanation that are appealing to the unobservable (Achinstein, 2010).  In addition, the Salmon theory of explanation usually provides a realistic account of an event.  The study essentially puts more emphasis on the causative relationship that exists between the exact explanation and elaboration of the question(s) ‘why’ and the real processes.

Thus, in order to ensure that there is congealing between these two extremes of the Salmon theory but maintain the correct views, philosophers devised a way through which the main themes in the two ways of the interpretation of the theory are characterized (Achinstein, 2010; Bedaub & Humphreys, 2008).  However, as long as it is important to explain the truth, the theory will still face the challenge of having multiple interpretations.  Truth usually has two perspectives i.e. the realistic or logical as well as the anti-realistic or anti-logical interpretation.  From the perspective of realists, what matters is connecting the language with the observable reality.  As a result, the Salmon theory is credited for giving us the causal form of the globe (Earth).  On the other hand, the anti-realists perspective is used as a background to understand the current experience (Achinstein, 2010; Bedaub & Humphreys, 2008).  Furthermore, the Salmon theory plays a vital role in instructing our practice to significant extents compared to the false one.

Additionally, a discussion of the current view of Salmon theory and not the classic view reveals an important aspect of the theory.  The discussion found that is, just because a difference exists in the interpretation of the points of view of the theory, this does not mean that business field scholars disagree on the theory, but what they are doing is simply begging to differ.  However, the concept has expanded to include practical bases, the social effects, as well as theoretical foundations of Salmon theory.  The usage of the Salmon theory varies from industries, to the government, as the expansion and growth of the internet continues.  Based on the above discussion it is evident that the fact still remains that the explanation of the Salmon theory is based on a cause-effect point of view.

Actual Application of the Theory

The application of the theory has been in providing explanation to the cause and effect laws.  This means that an interpretation of phenomenon that is observed is done on the basis of the cause.  Despite the fact that some theorists are not in support of using theories in practice and instead prefer the use of common sense, actual application of theory in practice is imperative because it helps in predicting results, which subsequent lead to the protection of someone from unforeseen danger.  When scholars are conducting a research study, the views of the scholar(s) must be aligned with the existing theories in the area of the research.  Cohesiveness makes the applicability of the theories possible when conducting the research.

In contrast, the point of view by some scholars is that prior to conducting literature review, the data analysis must be clearly set out.  In particular, Hey & Pace (2014) recommends the need for researchers to ensure inductive sensitivity development for the identification of the relevant literature.  The argument presented here has been at the center of the debate surrounding qualitative research (Dunne, 2011).  As a result, the discussion on how data analysis method is related to theory remains a sensitive area requiring sensible redress for optimal addition of value to the learning of business administration discipline.

This theory plays an essential role in ensuring that events run smoothly during the process of information collection, classification, storage, analysis, recovery, and subsequent dissemination.  Application of the integral principles of this theory in business organizations results in significant productivity improvements by individuals as well as increased retention rates.  Similarly, the Salmon theory has been widely applied in practice in providing explanations on different human and work behavior related scenarios, subsequently creating an effective environment for optimal performance ((Hey & Pace, 2014).

The Appropriateness of Theory Application to a Problem

When the appropriateness of the application of theory to a particular problem is considered, it is evidently clear that the trend should continue since the theory informs or guides practice by helping to deal with possible stereotypes, prejudices, and assumptions that may result in oppression or discrimination of a group of people in the workplace.  Also, the theory establishes the foundations for a developmental approach to management of human capital in industries and organizations and it is characterized by continuous personal and professional development.  As a result, the application of the theory from the perspective of industrial and organizational psychology ensures that employees of the organization have a high sense of commitment.  The theory also ensures a higher level of organizational identification, job satisfaction as well as employee engagement and motivation.  Employees that connected they are better equipped to meet the challenges of an evolving organization and can lead optimal performance.  In summary, the appropriateness of theory in practical applications as earlier explained is in accordance with succinct, precise as well as accurate understanding of the scope and nature of the theory, and the reasoning that inform the particular application of the theory.

Critique of Existing Research Design

Qualitative and quantitative researches have similarities but are unique to the study, and a study can be more qualitative than quantitative (Creswell, 2009).  Quantitative research is associated increasingly with relationships between variables and collecting data using numbers.  The results of the study are provided using statistical data that is interpreted by the researcher.  Mixed method research combines the efforts of qualitative research and quantitative research.  Mixed method research allows for greater strengthen with in the research area (Creswell, 2009).

Qualitative research in most cases focuses on the quality of the collected data.  Qualitative analysis is conducted through a content analysis approach, which enables sorting of the collected data into categories based on the highest levels of occurrence frequency of specific content (Toomela, 2011).  Qualitative research is generally used to generate new theories or to provide a deeper understanding of a particular phenomenon.  Data for the study is collected using narratives or stories that depict the worldview of the research participant.  The stories are used to paint a picture of the world through the eyes of the person in the mist of the event.  The results of a qualitative research study are characterized by non-numerical data (Trochim 2000).  According to Bernard & Ryan (2010) the disadvantages of qualitative research are: it is not possible to make assumptions outside of the sample; generalizations are not easy due to the nature of the collected data, and sample sizes are usually smaller unless other factors like personnel, time, and money are favorable; and finally the data analysis is solely dependent on the researcher’s skills.

In contrast, the main focus of quantitative data is on the quantity of the cases, and analysis is conducted through parametric measures.  Quantitative data focuses on the number of people engaged in or affected by an event (Trochim 2000).  According to Saini & Shlonsky (2012) the disadvantages of quantitative research are:  a narrow set of data collected which could sometimes be superficial; a narrow range of the results since the data analysis methods used provides numerical descriptions instead of detailed descriptions meaning that the accounts are not expounded fully and the research is carried out in controlled environments rather than the natural settings posing the risk of biasness.

How Research Contributes to Theory Conclusion

The application of a theory is essential in providing explanations of a particular phenomenon in a certain setting while at the same time addressing practical problems.  As a result, the use of theory is critically important because it informs or guides practice through prediction of the outcomes.  Moreover, a mix of both the qualitative and quantitative research approaches would be the most appropriate research methodology to adopt.  Mixed research methods would ensure that there is synergy between the two methods whereby weaknesses of either one of the research methods are reinforced by the strengths of the other.  This therefore will be vital in ensuring that actual results that are a representative of real world events are brought forth through the data analysis.  Trochim (2000) cautions that although qualitative research is associated with narratives and quantitative research is more closely associated with data; they are fundamentally dependent upon each other.  Moreover, adoption of mixed methods as a strategy for data analysis is undoubtedly the most appropriate approach since it acts and ensures that there are checks and balances for each other.  The mixed methods approach to research can also combine numeric data and narrative data to create to provide optimal research results.

How Research Contributes to Theory References

Achinstein, P. (2010). Evidence, explanation, and realism. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Apel, J. (2011). On the meaning and the epistemological relevance of the notion of a scientific phenomenon. Synthese, 182(1), 23-38.

Bedaub, M. A., & Humphreys, P. (2008). Emergence: Contemporary readings in philosophy and science. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Bederson, B. B., & Shneiderman, B. (2003). Theories for understanding information visualization. New York, NY: Morgan Kaufmann.

Bernard, R. B., & Ryan, G. W. (2010). Analyzing qualitative data. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Creswell, J. W. (2009). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Dunne, C. (2011). The place of the literature review in grounded theory research. International Journal of Social Research Methodology, 14(2), 111-124. doi:10.1080/13645579.2010.494930

Hey, J., & Pace, N. (2014). The explanatory and predictive power of non-two-stage-probability theories of decision making under ambiguity. Journal of Risk & Uncertainty, 49(1), 1-29. doi:10.1007/s11166-014-9198-8

Rappoport, L. (1996). Up, down, and sideways: The possible futures of theory. York, Ontario: Captus Press.

Rothman, K. J., & Greenland, S. (2005). Causation and causal inference in epidemiology.  American Journal of Public Health, 95(1), 144-150.

Saini, M., & Shlonsky, A. (2012). Systematic synthesis of qualitative research. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Stam, H. J. (2000). Theoretical psychology. In K. Pawlik, & M. Rosenzweig (Eds.), The international handbook of psychology. (pp. 551-570). London, England: Sage. http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781848608399.n29

Stam, H. (2010). Theory. In Salkind, N (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Research Design. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications Inc.

Toomela, A. (2011). Travel into a fairy land: A critique of modern qualitative and mixed methods psychologies. Integrative Psychology and Behavioral Science, Retrieved from https://www.etis.ee

Trochim, W. M. K (2000). Ethics in research. Retrieved from http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/ethics.php

Vickery, B. C., Vickery, A., & Thomson Gale (Firm). (2004). Information science in theory and practice. Mnchen: K.G. Saur.

Wacker, J. G. (1998).  A definition of theory:  Research guidelines for different theory-building research methods in operations management. Journal of Operations Management, 16(3), 361-385. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0272-6963(98)00019-

Question 3

Select five empirical articles from peer-reviewed journals that you consider critical to your understanding of your area of dissertation research.  Each article should address a particular phenomenon and attempt to contribute to theory about it. 

Research

This question helps in assessing the student’s ability and skills in reading, understanding, critiquing, and integrating research studies which identify a gap in previous studies which is critical to scientific research.  This paper will be used to review five peer-reviewed journal articles.  The review requires identification of the research problem, the research purpose, methodology, and the findings.  The paper will also include a literature review and a research proposal to address the identified gap.

Review of Journal Articles 

1. Carson, M. A., Shanock, L. R., Heggestad, E. D., Andrew, A. M., Pugh, S. D., & Walter, M. (2012). The relationship between dysfunctional interpersonal tendencies, derailment potential behavior, and turnover. Journal of Business and Psychology, 27(3), 291-304. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10869-011-9239-0

Research problem: Managerial derailment, including organizational exit and turnover is commonly associated with dire consequences in terms of workforce productivity.

Research purpose: The purpose of the study was to investigate how dysfunctional interpersonal tendencies are related to derailment management behaviors mainly in form of organizational exit as well as involuntary and voluntary turnover.

Research methods and design:  High level managers who worked for a global retail organization were used to investigate how dysfunctional interpersonal tendencies are related to derailment tendencies.  Data was gathered using archival data, and personal interviews, 360-degree feedback data, self-reported interpersonal tendencies and personal history (N= 1,796).

Findings: The study findings revealed that managers who show interpersonal dysfunctional behaviors had a higher likelihood of developing derailment tendencies.  As a result, the probability of these managers being fired or quitting was higher compared to their colleagues.  These findings have significant implications organizational welfare, especially by providing insights and better understanding of the managerial derailment process and possible solutions.  This is because the findings indicate a significant relationship between derailment behaviors and employee turnover.  Hence, the findings can be utilized to devise appropriate organizational management strategies to address the derailment menace.

Furthermore, the findings of this study are also helpful in guiding selection, training and promotion criteria and strategies employed by practitioners, in an attempt to potentially reduce negative impacts of loosing high productive executives.  This is among the first studies in this field and provides crucial information on managerial derailment and employee turnover.  The study findings can help to overcome biasness associated with retrospective studies conducted previously.  This study is strongly related to the Salmon theory because it provides a realistic view of the phenomenon, and authors demonstrated this by delving into real issues that influence employee turnover in organizations due to derailment behaviors.

1. Hansen, A., Byrne, Z., & Kiersch, C. (2014). How interpersonal leadership relates to employee engagement. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 29(8), 953. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1634006679?accountid=45049

Research problem: Employee engagement is perceived to be highly related to their corresponding job commitment or job tension, hence there is a need to ensure the appropriate organizational identification as well as interpersonal leadership is put in place to ensure this relationship is in alignment with the positive side.

Research Purpose: The purpose of this study was to examine the organizational identification as an imperative underlying mechanism through which interpersonal leadership perceptions are associated to employee commitment, as well as the subsequent relationship with job tension and commitment.

Design/methodology/approach: The study design involved a sample of 451 employees working on a full-time basis at an international firm who were then instructed to complete a survey that was web-based.

Findings: organizational identification mediated the relationship between perceived interpersonal leadership and engagement, which mediated the relationship between perceived interpersonal leadership and commitment.  Engagement mediated the relationship between identification and job tension.  Even though the study had a limitation of cross-sectional data collection meaning that the finding is not attributed to a specific field, it has the strength to ensure that a large field sample was included.  The study findings have implied that leaders who encourage organizational engagement by employees are also highly likely to be engaged.  This means that the findings of this study can be practically applied in developing interpersonal leadership characteristics.  The study further found that interpersonal relationships have the potential to increase positive perspectives in employee’s identification, engagement, and commitment to an organization, and have a negative relationship with job tension.  These findings are a manifestation that the study contributes to the Salmon theory by providing more evidence on how interpersonal leadership is realistically related to employee engagement in organizations.

1. Lourens, C., van Vuuren, L.J., & Eiselen, R. (2012). Measurement of organization-professional conflict in the industrial psychology profession. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology, 38(1), 1-12. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.4102/sajip.v38i1.1035

Research problem: Despite the fact that the widespread documentation of professionals experience in OPC for accountancy and medical professionals, it is still unclear of the extent to which this phenomenon is experienced by IP professionals.

Research purpose: The purpose of this study is to establish the measure of the experiences and perceptions of South African industrial psychology (IP) professionals, regarding Organization-Professional Conflict (OPC) in addition to the antecedents that are related to this phenomenon.

Research design, approach and method: The study adopted a structured questionnaire that is was developed and administered to all registered IP professionals in South Africa using a cross-sectional survey employed in each organization.  Research participants responses on basis of the N = 143 respondents who were self-selecting were captured and used to aid in statistical analysis.

Findings: In the IP profession, OPC can be regarded to be the incongruence that links the roles and duties in professional organizations, as well as their responsibilities and their adherence to obligations of the profession.  Strategic alignment and professional autonomy were found to be vital in mitigating the OPC occurrence, whereas compromise of professionalism and power tension thereof; seem to exacerbate this to occur.

Implications: The findings of this research have the potential in creating an awareness of the existing OPC amongst the stakeholders in the respective organizations.  It is also possible that knowledge of OPC has a potential to have an impact on professionals rendering their professional services to organizations.  As a result, the findings of this study can also be used in informing formal associations in the IP profession, organizations employing industrial psychologists, industrial psychologists, and the governing board concerning the extent and nature of OPC.  This study is related to Salmon theory because it delves on realistic perspective of measuring organization-professional conflict in the IP profession, which subsequently contributes on the approach likely to be adopted to address the challenge.

1. Lyons, L., M., & Perrewé, P. L. (2014). Examination of the interpersonal predictors of mentoring relational quality. Career Development International, 19(4), 381. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1658150914?accountid=45049

Research problem: Organizational research has continually focused on career development without considerable emphasis on mentoring, which has been identified as an imperative career success determinant.  Hence, the need to evaluate this is essential to determine the extent of identification of mentoring in organization by employees.

Research purpose: The purpose of this study was focusing on the interpersonal dynamics contributing to differences in the behaviors of mentors and how they support effectiveness.  In particular, mentoring relational quality (MRQ) effects such as affective perceptions that protégés and mentors hold on mentoring behaviors psychosocial and vocational as well as professional identification, are all taken into consideration.  Interpersonal skills such as political skills and behavioral integrity of protégés and mentors are evaluated with respect to how they impact MRQ.

Design/methodology/approach: The study design utilized data from a matched dyadic survey obtained from a hundred mentor-protégé pairs in postgraduate academe (the pairs particularly included dissertation chairs and recent doctoral alumni or doctoral candidates), the obtained data was subjected to partial least squares as a method of testing the research model.

Findings: The findings of this study were in support of MRQ as a vitally imperative element in mentoring program dynamics.  This is attributed to the fact that, there was a significant link between MRQ for protégés and mentors and provided and received mentor support behaviors, respectively.  The perceptions of mentors towards MRQ were determined through the prediction of the behavioral integrity of protégés’ as well as the political skill of mentors.  Similarly, the political skills of protégés’ and behavioral integrity of mentors showed a significant prediction of the perceptions of protégés’ towards MRQ.  Furthermore, protégés and mentors reported professional identification of higher levels when there was high MRQ.  The implications of these finding are varied and can be specifically used in linking behavioral and affective perspectives of mentoring.  The study further shows the significance of interpersonal skills among mentors in the process of career development.  The findings of this study contribute to the Salmon theory by outlining that, the characteristic interpersonal dynamics of mentor-protégé interactions are vital in determining the extent to which behaviors that supports mentoring may be provided in actual scenarios by mentors and subsequently received by protégés in a mentoring program.

1. Roussin, C. J., & Webber, S. S. (2012). Impact of organizational identification and psychological safety on initial perceptions of coworker trustworthiness. Journal of Business and Psychology, 27(3), 317-329. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10869-011-9245-2

Research problem: At workplace, trustworthiness plays a critical role in determining interpersonal relations between employees and in particular initial trustworthiness perceptions are vital in serving as reference points anchored in the mind and for subsequently trust perceptions as well as related organizational behavioral choices.

Research purpose: The purpose of this study was to examine how employees and the organization are related and how it is an underexplored influence on employees’ perceptions.  Thus, this study seeks to investigate how workplace’s perceived organizational identification (OI) and psychological safety (PS) influence initial perceptions on the trustworthiness of others.

Design/methodology/approach: The study design adopted in collecting data was through surveys as well as scenario methods from high-potential managers sample of 155 (n = 155) while they were participating in a course in a leadership development training.

Findings: The findings of the study are a demonstration that both disposition to PS and trust were positively and significantly related to initial perceptions of trustworthiness of others.  However, a significant negative moderating effect of OI was observed on how psychology safety was related to perceived trustworthiness.  In addition, a significantly strong positive relationship was observed between initial perceptions of trustworthiness of others and low OI. However, when OI is high this relationship is non-significant.  The implications of this study are very vital to organizations, especially in providing evidence of how employee and the organization relationship can be used in influencing initial trustworthiness in others from the individual perception.  This is attributed to the fact that, the aspects of the relationship between the organization and the trust or have in previous studies not been put under consideration as initial trustworthiness on others’ perceptions influencers.  PS, which is commonly studied as a direct influencer on performance and learning, has in previous studies not been examined as a socialized trustworthiness perceptions influencing factor.  This study affects the Salmon theory of explaining a phenomenon from a realist perspective, because the theory can be applied in the identified research gaps to further investigated the scenario and gain more insights.

Part 2: Literature Review

The industrial and organizational psychologist as counselors in the work has been attributed to the corresponding performance (Van Vuuren, 2010).  Strumpfer (2007) reiterates that industrial and organizational psychologist’s role in counseling at their places of work is vital in conflict resolution as well as motivation because they specialize in the psychology of human and work behavior in their respective organizations.  Roussin & Webber (2012) reported a significant and positive relationship between organizational identification and psychological safety mainly on the basis of initial coworker trustworthiness perceptions at places of work.  However, they did not elaborate on how the counseling role of industrial and organizational psychologists as the key counselors at organizations would be harnessed in making sure that such initial perceptions are addressed.  This is attributable to industrial and organizational psychologists being in the forefront in applying their counseling skills with regards to human and work behavior and solving work-related problems while motivating employees for improved performance (Van Vuuren, 2010).

In a different study, Lyons & Perrewé (2014) examined how interpersonal predictors influenced mentoring relational quality (MRQ) by emphasizing mutual existence of both. Despite the many predictors examined in this study, it was obviously clear that the researchers never considered the counseling role of industrial and organizational psychologists as a vital influencing factor of (MRQ).  This leaves an outright gap since mentoring and counseling are inclusively mutual and directly influence each other.

The other factor influenced by the interpersonal leadership of industrial and organizational psychologists as workplace counselors is to ensure that appropriate conflict resolution mechanisms are in place (Van Vuuren, 2010).  Lourens, van Vuuren & Eiselen (2012) conducted a study to measure the role of industrial psychology profession in organization-professional conflict resolution. The findings of the study highlighted many factors including good working relationships, trustworthiness and appropriate policies.  However, the vital role of IP psychologists in counseling during workplace tensions and conflicts was never emphasized or clearly manifested.  IP psychologists are imperative in ensuring peaceful working environments are established in the work place and therefore must be considered as a deterrent to conflict.

Alternatively, Hansen, Byrne & Kiersch (2014) examined the relationship between interpersonal leadership and employee engagement and found that the two were positively and significantly related.  This means that when interpersonal leadership is high in organizations, a corresponding high employee engagement is also expected.  However, a poignant omission in this study was to evaluate how the role of industrial and organizational psychologists would contribute to making sure that interpersonal leadership was heightened in organizations.  This leaves a serious gap in the findings of this study because interpersonal leadership in organizations cannot be considered without input on the role played of industrial and organizational psychologists.  Interpersonal leaders are key elements in resolving disputes as well as motivating employees to achieve an overall improvement in employee engagement.  Similarly, Carson et al. (2012) evaluated how dysfunctional interpersonal tendencies among managers are related to derailment potential as well as employee turnover and found that a significant and positive relationship existed.  However, the role of industrial and organizational psychologists in addressing these behaviors among managers was not considered.  This omission leaves a considerable void and may have been vital in mediating the variables considered for measurement and may have changed the obtained results.  Based on the articles reviewed in this study, it is evident that a research gap exists.  The role of industrial and organizational psychologists’ is paramount in counseling employees and should be harnessed to achieve positive organizational results and improved performance.

Proposed study  

From the review of the five peer-reviewed journals covered in Part 1 and Part 2 of this question it is evident that diverse aspects concerning the phenomenon under consideration were discovered.  A significant number of the findings were known while other provided new information.  Therefore, the following research study will be proposed to address one of the unknown issues about the phenomenon under consideration with regards to industrial and organizational psychology.  In particular, the study will address the role of IP psychologists in ensuring that conflicts between employees and employers are resolved amicably.  In addition, these findings of the study can be applied in the motivation of employees by mentoring and setting an example of interpersonal leadership.  One of the issues which remained unclear or unknown is whether IP psychologists are well prepared to perform the vital function of workplace counseling in order to improve workplace cohesion and productivity.  As a result, a research study covering the stated research question, research purpose, research methods and their justification as well as the data analysis plan are proposed as shown below:

Research question: How Salmon theory can be applied to evaluate the preparedness of industrial and organizational psychologists as workplace counselors and welfare reform agents?

Research purpose: The purpose of this study will be to evaluate the counseling role of industrial and organizational psychologists in the work place.  The study will further ascertain whether they are properly prepared to carry out this vital function in determining performance improvement for their organizations.

Motivation for the study: This study was motivated by the role of industrial and organizational psychologists in solving deep-rooted problems experienced by employees in the work place and the need for additional training in counseling skills.  Based on peer-reviewed journal articles there is a gap in knowledge as to whether practitioners have received the necessary training required to examine the situation and come up with appropriate findings.

Research design, approach and method: The research design to be adopted for this study is a qualitative research design.  Convenience sampling of 200 participants will be used.  The sample will be drawn from a pool of industrial and organizational psychology practitioners across small and medium enterprises (SMEs), government agencies and authorities as well as multinational companies. Both semi-structured in-depth interviews and structured questionnaires will be utilized to collect data, which will then be processed and subjected to correlational data analysis using SPSS statistical software (Creswell, 2009).

Justification of the chosen methods: The justification of the qualitative research design to be adopted in this study is that, it will enable collection of primary data relevant to the phenomenon using primary data collection techniques, semi-structured interviews, and questionnaires as described in the methods (Creswell, 2009).

Data analysis: The data analysis plan would begin with cleaning and processing of the collected data by eliminating the outliers and coding the resulting data.  The data would then be subjected to correlational data analysis using the SPSS software.  These data analysis techniques are appropriate in making sure that the necessary statistical tests including ANOVA, Correlation and Regression are used to enable proper interpretation of the study findings (Creswell, 2009).

How Research Contributes to Theory References

Carson, M. A., Shanock, L. R., Heggestad, E. D., Andrew, A. M., Pugh, S. D., & Walter, M. (2012). The relationship between dysfunctional interpersonal tendencies, derailment potential behavior, and turnover. Journal of Business and Psychology, 27(3), 291-304. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10869-011-9239-0

Creswell, J. W. (2009). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Hansen, A., Byrne, Z., & Kiersch, C. (2014). How interpersonal leadership relates to employee engagement. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 29(8), 953. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1634006679?accountid=45049

Lourens, C., van Vuuren, L.J., & Eiselen, R. (2012). Measurement of organization-professional conflict in the industrial psychology profession. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology, 38(1), 1-12. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.4102/sajip.v38i1.1035

Lyons, L., M., & Perrewé, P. L. (2014). Examination of the interpersonal predictors of mentoring relational quality. Career Development International, 19(4), 381. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1658150914?accountid=45049

Roussin, C. J., & Webber, S. S. (2012). Impact of organizational identification and psychological safety on initial perceptions of coworker trustworthiness. Journal of Business and Psychology, 27(3), 317-329. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10869-011-9245-2

Strumpfer, D. W. (2007). Lest we forget that industrial and organizational psychology is psychology. South African Journal of Industrial Psychology, 33(1), 1-7.

Van Vuuren, L. J. (2010). Industrial psychology: Goodness of fit? Fit for goodness? SA Journal of Industrial Psychology, 36(2), 1-6. doi: 10.4102/sajip.v36i2.939.

Question 4

Write a paper in which you discuss how you will ensure that all aspects of your doctoral research, from literature review to conducting research to writing the dissertation manuscript will be done with care and integrity and will meet the ethical standards of scientific research.  Reference the two publications above and at least five additional peer-reviewed articles. 

   

Ethics

Conducting scientific research requires strict adherence to ethical principles.  Doctoral students should have an understanding of ethical principles as tools to assist in avoiding legal issues, issues of trust, and issues surrounding negligence.  Full understanding of the process requires discipline and strength in order to be successful. The process of creating a study worthy study involves development of a research question, research methodology understanding, literature review, and concept papers.  The process further requires a dissertation proposal in addition to obtaining permission to conduct the actual research. It is undoubtedly a daunting task to successfully accomplish the entire process and it requires care, discipline and integrity, all of which should be anchored in the laid down ethical standards.

In this question, the process of maintaining discipline and integrity, as well as optimal ethical standards levels in the doctoral research process will be assessed.  Core values will be explored which need to be adhered to throughout the research process.  The main issues concerning ethical standards in the doctoral research process will be addressed including conducting literature review, plagiarism, risk assessment, informed consent, privacy and confidentiality, data handling, reporting, mistakes, and negligence.  The need to work with a Mentor as well as Northcentral University’s requirements for Institutional Research Review Board (IRRB) approval will also be addressed.  However, despite the fact that this discussion is based on broad ethical standards required in doctoral research, an actual set of ethical standards that I will abide to include: avoiding plagiarism, conducting risk assessment, maintaining privacy and confidentiality of collected data, acquisition of necessary approvals, working with mentors, as well as professional data handling and reporting.

Self-Assessment

In preparing for and completing the proposed research study investigating the effects of Welfare Reform on Public Housing Authorities, the following steps will be followed to ensure that all aspects of the doctoral research is done with care and integrity and  meet the ethical standards of scientific research.  Once comprehensive examinations are complete the dissertation process begins.  Prior to beginning the process, a self-assessment will be completed to address issues of time management and level of commitment required to meet the rigors of completing the research study.  The self-assessment will also be used to examine and reflect on beliefs or biases that may affect the study.  The self-assessment will also assist with deciding on which research approach will be used in the study.  The school code of conduct will be reviewed to reinforce the need to be transparent, honest and respectful throughout the research process.

Working with the Mentor

Once the assessment is complete the assignment of a dissertation committee and a mentor will be the next steps in the dissertation process.  The dissertation committee and the mentor are key elements in ensuring the integrity of the research.  To ensure ethical integrity during this research process, open dialogue regarding each aspect of the process will be maintained.

The doctoral research process is a daunting and complex process that requires clear directions and instructions from a mentor in order for the student to complete the process successfully.  Throughout the research process, mentors play a key role in the facilitation of each stage.  Mentors ensure that students’ academic standards as well as other research guidelines and standards that are generally accepted are met by all parts of the research study.  Zipp, Cahill, & Clark (2009), state that in addition to specific mentors assigned to doctoral students as supervisors, mentoring programs are established by most institutions of higher learning to offer modeling and research assistance to doctoral students throughout their research process.

It is undisputable that doctoral students’ mentors provide them with right levels of expertise, support, and encouragement throughout their doctoral research process thereby helping them achieve the required skills and experience at the doctoral level as well as successfully completing their doctoral research.  As a result, mentors play a vital role in encouraging the doctoral students in the learning and adoption of best research practices.  This creates the need for the mentor to be present in every stage of the doctoral research process from the research question development, concept paper writing, dissertation proposal development, availing dissertation materials through the final dissertation writing.

The mentor is also important in providing invaluable support and help to student during actual research processes such as designing and testing of research instruments, interviewing research participants, collating data, as well as analyzing and interpreting collected data. According to Zipp et al. (2009), the use of mentors by doctoral students during their research process has a significantly positive impact in the doctoral program.  Zipp et al. (2009) further found that mentors have a strong impact on students producing high quality work, enhancing performance, and the reputation of the institutions of higher learning.  The dissertation committee and mentor can also assist with issues regarding the research process that include handling of mistakes and negligence.

Data Handling and Reporting

The doctoral research process requires proper gathering, reporting, storage and handling of data in order for the legitimacy of the research process to be guaranteed.  In an effort to maintain ethical integrity, safety, and the privacy of research participants, approval will be obtained from the Institutional Research Review Board (IRRB).  Approval from IRRB is required whenever human subjects are involved in the research as mandated by the federal government.   IRRB is tasked with providing guidance and ensuring that human subjects participating in a research study are not abused or their rights are not violated.  IRRB is especially concerned when the information obtained from research participants touches on behavioral patterns, sensitivity issues, and studies that involve protected classes and the needs and comfort of participants (Evans & Combs, 2008).

How data is handled can have severe repercussions and seriously impact the value of research making it imperative to handle collected data appropriately throughout the research process.  Data for the proposed study will be handled in accordance with the guidelines established during the on-set of the study and by Northcentral University.  Ethical standards on data handling will be discussed throughout the research process with the mentor and dissertation chair person.  Inappropriate handling of data, processing of data, and storage of data is a reflection of the research and the institution associated with the research.  The researcher will strive to adhere to the guideline and policies provided by the IRRB and Northcentral University.

The proposed study will collect data from research participants using the following tools; personal note taking, tape recordings, setting out questionnaires, and observations.  The process of data gathering requires consistency, stringent adherence to specific guidelines and policies.  Once data is gathered it will use the process established during the onset of the study.  Adhering to time restraints in processing documents decreases the likelihood of breeches in privacy.  Data for this study will be stored in locked cabinets and computers that are password restricted.  Processing and storage are critical to the validity of the research; unprotected data can lead to legal issues and loss of funding.

According to Evans & Combs (2008), the end of a particular research can be a prerequisite for another research question or hypothesis.  Previous data may be needed which may support or refute the new research or hypothesis.  Therefore, it is imperative for the researcher to establish a contingency plan and a back-up plan for storing and retrieving previously used research data.  All data for the proposed study will be stored on the computer hard drive and backed up-on flash drives.  Paper copies of questionnaires will be scanned into the computer, along with pictures and recordings.  The documents will be accessible by the researcher and the research assistant through the use of a security code.  Every measure will be taken to uphold the ethical principles of document handling (Turk, 2010).

Mistakes and Negligence

The doctoral thesis writing process like other processes is not immune to mistakes.  The challenges and complexity of research lends itself to mistakes.  While mistakes can be minimized through constant reviews with mentors and the dissertation committee, mistakes can still happen.  Students lack of knowledge of the dissertation process, fear, and limited writing skills may contribute to mistakes.  In an effort to limit the number of mistakes in the proposed research study, the computer will be used to collect and store data, and to proof read documents.  The researcher will also maximize the use of the mentor when entering data and when there are issues of concern in the research process.  The researcher will be open and receptive to the mentor regarding learning style, the rigorous dissertation process and understanding, which will lead to a writing process of high quality standards.  Schoenherr & Williams-Jones (2011) noted that understanding the students learning processes can assist in evaluating the students understanding.

To ensure ethical code of conduct in the research process, there is a need for making sure that the highest level of integrity is maintained throughout the research process irrespective of whether the researcher is a doctoral student or an experienced and/or seasoned scholar in research.  Thus, there must be an emphasis on meeting the highest level of expectation and standards by those engaging in research process in the bid to ensuring sanctity and sanity in the research process as a whole.  Peer reviewers of research studies and mentors with obligations of supervising the research process have a duty of ensuring prevention of errors and mistakes as well as avoidance negligence on the student’s side or even experienced researchers (Pitcher, 2011).  Prevention or reduction of negligence on the student’s part can be achieved when there is commitment between students and their mentors to ensure that rigorous process and ethical standards are stringently followed throughout the research process.  Failure to meet these ethical standards by students should be penalized by having the student repeat the entire process or on serious violations removal from their schools as measures to discourage unethical research behaviors.

Literature Review

Jazvac-Martek (2009) stated that undertaking a doctorate degree in business or psychology related fields requires an individual who is determined and has the passion to succeed without necessarily accomplishing the research in particular.  This means that the process in entirety needs a determined individual who has innate strength which must augment high above any challenges or barriers encountered in the course of the doctoral study process.  Resilience and attention to detail will be required because of the need to conduct extensive collection of documents, evaluation, examination, as well as organization of voluminous data obtained from a wide range of sources.  Data will be collected from numerous sources including peer-reviewed journals, personal interviews, and businesses.  Once gathered the information will be sorted, filed, and kept confidential at all time.

This task is usually demanding for a lot of students pursuing doctoral studies because it requires adherence to strict directions, formats, as well as evaluation of information that may not necessarily lead to the desired conclusion.  The rigorous work required by doctoral study effects students in different ways and may result in students providing substandard work as well as following unethical approaches in order to arrive at conclusions that they desire (Jazvac-Martek 2009).  Strengthening of scientific research will require that all students and scholars make an obligation of adopting ethical standards throughout their research processes (Artino & Brown, 2009).

Plagiarism

According to Horrom (2012), research misconducts can severely erode the integrity of scientific research process.  One of such research misconducts is plagiarism which has the potential to seriously threaten the originality of research ideas and content (Singh & Bennington, 2012).  Nancy & Chester-Fangman (2011) noted that plagiarism involves presenting work of others as your own or without acknowledging the source.  Osei (2013) states that plagiarism is one of biggest ethical dilemmas facing many students during dissertation phase.  The matter is escalated by the lack of a succinct definition of plagiarism that is universally acceptable does not exist (Osei, 2013).

Despite the fact that, some students’ engagement in plagiarism is unintentional, it is worthwhile to note that a good number of students deliberately commit the acts of plagiarism especially when they are under strenuous conditions (Davis, 2011).  In order to address this dilemma, clear cut guidelines on plagiarism will be employed in order to ensure that unintentional engagement and outright ethical misconduct is discouraged (Titus & Bosch, 2010).  Documents will be reviewed and proofed continuously to ensure sources are credited.  Engaging in plagiarism seriously affects integrity of research and professional research work and should be severely penalized (Osei, 2013).  As a result, students and researchers should ensure that all external sources are appropriately acknowledged as the first step of avoiding plagiarism in addition to stringent compliance to code of ethics and research standards (Horrom, 2012).

Risk Assessment

During any empirical research process whether for doctoral studies or scholarly purposes, risk assessment is always a vital pre-requisite requiring students to do an evaluation of any activities that have the potential of affecting other student, research participants, as well as the school.  Self-assessments will be used as tools to enable the researcher in identifying any impeding risks that are likely to affect the research.  Measures will be put in place such as design controls that guard against risks during the collection, processing and storage of data.  Completing a risk assessment will assist in pinpointing and reducing risk during the research process.  .

There are many risks in a research study but the most common include the research findings being reputed, financial obligations as well as legal disputes.  Koocher & Keith-Spiegel (2010) stated that plagiarism is the most common risk in any scientific research, and it involves falsification of research sources and records, and research content fabrication.  These risks are usually severely penalized and the corresponding damages may span over a long period of time.

In addition, the students should also understand that, risks in scientific research are dynamic and continue to change over time.  In order to offset risks the researcher should ensure that constant assessments are an integral part of the research process.  Risk assessment changes can be further minimized through prompt gathering, recording, and sharing.  Appropriate information should be shared with people directly concerned with the study such as the mentors, colleagues and research participants to ensure that the research risks are averted (Truex, Cuellar, Takeda, & Vidgen, 2011).

Informed Consent

The principle guiding the concept of an informed consent is the desire or pursuit for trustworthiness and actions that display mutual respect between research participants and researchers.  Several terms are used in scientific research to describe ethical protections in attempt to ensure that the research participants’ rights are protected (Trochim, 2006).  The scientific research process requires that research participants not be coerced to participate in any research and when approached should voluntarily opt to take part of any research study.  As a result, there must be protection of those who agree to voluntarily participate in the research study from possibility of apprehensions or retaliations.

During the proposed study each participant will be briefed on the purpose of the research in terms that are comprehendible.  Participants will be made aware of the process in its entirety along with any possible risk they may be exposed to because of their participation in the research study.  After this information is availed in a manner or language clearly understandable to them, research participants will be provided an opportunity to consent to their participation.  Care will be taken to protect all research participants from physical or any psychological harm.  For participants below the age of 18, a parental consent will be required.  If parental consent is not obtainable appropriate documentation will be secured prior to allowing the minor to participate in the research study.

Privacy and Confidentiality

Despite the fact that a good number of students interchangeably use the terms privacy and confidentiality to mean the same thing and sometimes using them simultaneously, some differences exist between the two terms even though not significant because their ultimate goal is the same (Mbanaso, Cooper, Chadwick, & Anderson, 2009).  For instance, privacy concerns a situation where a person has control over the timing, extent, and circumstance to share personal information with others (Webb, 2008).  Confidentiality on the other hand is the protection of the privacy of another person (Dinwiddie, 2012).

During the proposed research process, personal information will be collected from research participants and will be maintained as confidential throughout the duration of the study and for a 5 year period before being destroyed.  Violations may result in dire consequences because there are no negotiations to a person’s right to privacy (Levine, 2008).  This is because a person’s right to privacy and confidentiality is entrenched in the statutory regulations governing practices across professions.  The consequences of violating privacy and the confidentially code of ethics and standards in a research process not only damages the integrity and validity of the research but also may result to legal actions (American Psychological Association, 2010).  Appropriate processes for data collection, handling, reporting, and retrieval will be adopted as a means of protecting participants privacy.  Restrictions will also be implemented to prevent unauthorized access to the collected data and to ensure privacy and confidentiality of collected participants (Levine, 2008).

Requirements for IRB Approval

The IRB refers to the Institutional Review Board which is mandated to ensure that every research within a professional or an academic discipline is aligned to established procedures and guidelines.  The requirements for IRB approval to conduct research study are as follows: (1) human subjects participating in the research should not be exposed to risk and in case of any impeding risk it should be significantly minimized, (2) selection of human subjects follows a fair and unbiased process, (3) informed consent must be obtained from the research participants, (4) there is guaranteed safety of research participants and the collected data, and (5) protection of privacy as well as confidentiality are assured (Rutherford-Hemming, Vlasses, & Rogers, 2012).

All universities and other institutions of higher learning in the U.S. where studies involving participation of human subjects are conducted, have a policy to ensure that research studies conducted by their students or faculty comply with the guidelines and procedures outlined by IRB and other federal laws regarding participation by human subjects.

Prior to beginning the proposed research the researcher will seek informed consent or permission from the research population.  The researcher will ensure that proper approvals have been obtained prior to initiating contact with any potential participant for the purpose of conducting interviews or collecting data (Appelbaum, Lidz, & Klitzman, 2009).  The researcher will also be in continuous communication with the mentor and dissertation chairperson to ensure that the proper procedures are followed.

Recommendations and Conclusion                 

Ethical conduct like charity is a learned behavior that can be contributed to parents, religious organizations, schools, or other community organizations.  Ethical conduct is a major component of research.  Ethical conduct guides our relationships with people and is the focal point and one of the guiding forces of the dissertation process.  Ethics in research ensure that studies are trustworthy, protect the rights of participants, while minimizing access to information.  Ethics also guide the research process for faculty and students through the establishment of rules and regulations.  As a result, every student and/or faculty is obliged to ensure that, they stringently adhere to the code of ethics and standards put in place by their institutions as a precautionary measure to avoid ethical misconduct.

In conclusion, every scientific researcher whether a doctoral student or an experienced researcher must ensure strict compliance to standards and code of ethics established within their institution’s core principles and guidelines.  Failure to adhere to the code of ethics, ethical principles of research or other federal laws will result in disciplinary measures.  Disciplinary measures may be far reaching and may extend to any one touched by the research activities including research participants, reviewers, mentors, advisors, and colleagues.

How Research Contributes to Theory References

American Psychological Association, (2010). Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct: Including 2010 Amendments. Standard 8: Research and Publication. Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/ethics/code/index.aspx

Davis, L. (2011). Arresting Student Plagiarism: Are We Investigators or Educators?. Business Communication Quarterly, 74(2), 160-163 doi:10.1177/1080569911404053

Dinwiddie, S. H. (2012). Potential medico-legal issues in the care of the VIP patient. Psychiatric Annals, 42(1), 33-37. doi:10.3928/00485713-20111229-08

Evans, M. A., & Combs, L. M. (2008). When dealing with human subjects: Balancing ethical and practical matters in the field. TechTrends, 52(6), 30-35. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/223119751?accountid=28180

Horrom, T. A. (2012). The perils of copy and paste: Plagiarism in scientific publishing. Journal of Rehabilitation Research & Development, 49(8), vii-xii.

Jazvac-Martek, M. (2009). Oscillating role identities: The academic experiences of education doctoral students. Innovations in Education and Teaching International, 46(3), 253-264. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/210685774?accountid=28180

Koocher, G., & Keith-Spiegel, P. (2010). Peers nip misconduct in the bud. Nature, 466(7305), 438-440. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/733080459?accountid=28180

Levine, F. J. (2008). From the desk of the executive director: AERA and the national research council address FERPA. Educational Researcher, 37(5), 302-303. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/216904127?accountid=28180

Mbanaso, U. M., Cooper, G. S., Chadwick, D., & Anderson, A. (2009). Obligations of trust for privacy and confidentiality in distributed transactions. Internet Research, 19(2), 153-173. doi:10.1108/10662240910952328

Nancy, S. G., & Chester-Fangman, C. (2011). The librarian’s role in combating plagiarism. Reference Services Review, 39(1), 132-150. doi:10.1108/00907321111108169

Osei, E. (2013). The dissertation process in obtaining philosopher doctorate in business administration. American International Journal of Contemporary Research, 3(10), 106-112.

Pitcher, R. (2011). Doctoral students’ conceptions of research. The Qualitative Report, 16(4), 971-983. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/877886037?accountid=28180