Ethical Dilemma Principles and Theories Order Instructions: Case Study is mentioned below.
• APA Referencing
• At least 10 genuine references from 2010 to 2016 study based,
• 90 % references has to be research based Journal article AND books
• Australian and New Zealand based study articles are preferable.
Ethical Dilemma Principles and Theories
• Please have a look Rubric guideline for given topic, I need good grades in this assignment so please do me a favour and try to make a good reflection using Case Study: — Norma Ellis is a 76 year old widow, who recently had a fall at the nursing home she has lived in for the past 7 years and fractured her hip. She has subsequently has a hip replacement and has been rehabilitating well and is now due for discharge back to the nursing home. Norma has an extensive medical history including postural hypotension, rheumatoid arthritis, and impaired mobility. She mobilised within the nursing home using a walker. Her son is demanding that his mother be kept in the ward as an inpatient as he feels that the nursing home staff were negligent and wants his mother to be placed elsewhere bus has not arranged this yet. The treating team consist of the doctor, physiotherapist, nurse unit manager of the rehabilitation unit, social worker, and nurse unit manager of the Norma’s ward at nursing home, where she was in prior to the fall. You are the designated team leader. The doctor feels that there is no need to have Mrs. Ellis on the ward as he feels that her rehabilitation has been maximised, this is an opinion shared by the physiotherapist. Norma wants to go back to the nursing home as she has made many friends there and feels at home there.
Discuss the following question with rationales,
Question: – what were the key issues in this dilemma?
Question: – How would you deal with Norma’s son?
Question :-Are his objection warranted?
Ethical Dilemma Principles and Theories Sample Answer
Ethical Dilemma
An ethical dilemma results when there are two alternatives and neither is right or wrong. The decision which would have maximum benefit to the patient depends on the circumstances during the occurrence of the ethical dilemma (Wilson, 2012). During the occurrence of an ethical dilemma, the nurse has to make the most appropriate choice between two options. In some situations, an ethical dilemma seems to have been solved. However, there are some questions which still remain unanswered and as a result, this ambiguity possesses a challenge to the person who makes the decision (Nursing and Midwifery Board of Australia, 2012).
Therefore, a nurse has to make a decision basing on ethical principles and theories. To reason ethically, the nurse must think critically of what should be done in an orderly and systematic manner to provide a rationale of actions based on the ethical principles (Nursing and Midwifery Board of Australia, 2012). However, it should be clear to the nurse involved that the decision to be made should not entirely be based on intuitions and emotions.
Once the ethical dilemma is identified, the nurse should determine the main issues in the dilemma to be able to come up with the best resolution. Some of the factors that should be considered include ethical theories and principle, the party to be affected and the consequences of the alternatives. For a nurse to be able to resolve an ethical dilemma, it is important to make her decisions in a systematic manner.
The key issues that have come out from Norma’s case include: the son wants her mother to be retained in the ward since he feels the mother got the fracture from the negligence of the staff working in the nursing home. However, it is not justified that she indeed got the fracture as a result of negligence. Another issue that comes out clearly is that Norma wants to go back to the nursing home due to the friends that she had made at the nursing home.
One of the ethical principles in nursing is autonomy. The patient has a right to make decisions regarding her treatment. However, the nurse is obliged to intervene if at all she feels it is not the best decision the patient has made. Also, the principle of beneficence stipulates that nurses are obliged to do good and no harm. Therefore, as a nurse-in-charge of the ward, I would weigh the two options so as to be able to make a decision that would most benefit Norma.
In this case, as the team leader in the management of Mrs. Noma’s case, I would explain to the son that her mother had a right to be allowed to make decisions regarding her treatment (Burkhardt & Nathaniel, 2013). In addition, I would explain that old age is one of the risk factors for fractures due to reduced calcification.
Mrs. Noma’s son’s objections are not warranted. This is because there is no clear evidence that the team in the rehabilitation center played a role in the fracture that Norma sustained during her stay in the Nursing home. Therefore, there was no clear reason as to why the patient could not be taken to the nursing home. From the issues raised above, it is so clear that some ethical issues have come out openly. Therefore the nurse responsible for handling the issues should be in a position to apply the relevant moral knowledge to be in a position to make the most beneficial decision for the patient (Berman et al.).
Ethical Dilemma Principles and Theories References
Berman, A., Snyder, S.J., Kozier, B., Erb, G., Levett-Jones T., Dwyer, T., Hales, M., Harvey, N., & Stanley, D. (2013). Kozier and erb’s fundamentals of nursing (2nd ed.). Vol 2, NSW: Pearson Sydney Australia.
Burkhardt, M. A., & Nathaniel, A. (2013). Ethics and issues in contemporary nursing. Cengage Learning..
DeKeyser Ganz, F., & Berkovitz, K. (2012). Nurses’ perceptions of ethical dilemmas, moral distress and quality of care. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 68(7), 1516-1525.
Faden, R. R., Beauchamp, T. L., & Kass, N. E. (2014). Informed consent, comparative effectiveness, and learning health care. N Engl J Med, 370(8), 766-768.
González-Pachón, J., & Romero, C. (2016). Bentham, Marx and Rawls ethical principles: In search for a compromise. Omega, 62, 47-51.
Hunt, L., Ramjan, L., McDonald, G., Koch, J., Baird, D., & Salamonson, Y. (2015). Nursing students’ perspectives of the health and healthcare issues of Australian Indigenous people. Nurse education today, 35(3), 461-467.
Kangasniemi, M., Pakkanen, P., & Korhonen, A. (2015). Professional ethics in nursing: an integrative review. Journal of advanced nursing, 71(8), 1744-1757.
Lee, J. Y., & Divaris, K. (2014). The ethical imperative of addressing health disparities in a unifying framework. Journal of dental research, 93(3), 224-230.
Myers, M. D., & Venable, J. R. (2014). A set of ethical principles for design science research in information systems. Information & Management, 51(6), 801-809.
Nursing and Midwifery Board of Australia. (2013). Nursing and national competency standards for Registered nurse. .
Wilson, R. (2012). Legal, ethical and professional concepts with in the operating department. National Institute of Health, 22(3),81-5.
APA REFERENCES NOT OLDER THEN 5 YEARS. ONLY CREDIBLE SOURCES ARE JOURNALS AND ARTICLES NO WEBSITES ACCEPTED.
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THIS IS HEALTH CARE ETHICS ESSAY,!
Assessment Task 3: Essay – An Ethical Dilemma
Select a case study from the list below and address the following points.
1. Identify the stakeholders including two health care professionals in the case scenario;
2. Identify the ethical and legal conflicts and consider them from the following perspectives:
? The dignity and rights of all stakeholders in this case
? The principles and virtues of health care ethics that inform professional practice
? The relevant codes of ethics and/or codes of professional conduct
3. Propose a legally and ethically defensible resolution to these conflicts
Case scenario give below
CASE STUDY TWO
Alex Ng, a senior paramedic in a regional centre, is called out to attend a motor vehicle accident on the main highway, involving two cars and a large transport truck. On arrival at the scene, Alex finds passengers trapped in both cars; two children in a small car are not moving and show no other signs of consciousness while the female driver is slumped over the steering wheel, bleeding from a head wound. The male driver of the other car is conscious but trapped in the wreckage; he tells Alex’s partner that he cannot feel or move his lower limbs. The male truck driver is walking around the wreckage and appears confused and disorientated; at a glance, he does not appear to be physically injured. A woman who was driving past stops her car and comes forward; she tells Alex that she is an emergency physician and can help. Alex is grateful for the offer of help and asks her to attend to the children, however, he notices the smell of alcohol on her breath when she walks past him. After opening the door of the other car, Alex notices that the trapped driver is wearing earphones attached to his mobile phone and the phone screen indicates that he was on a call when the accident occurred. The driver is alone and Alex recognizes him as the local magistrate, and a good family friend. Just then, he hears the screech of brakes and turns to see that the truck driver has walked up the highway and into oncoming traffic. He is lying on the road and does not appear to be breathing
SAMPLE ANSWER
Health Care Ethics
Introduction
Ethics affects every part of healthcare setting, and this calls for healthcare providers to be vigilant when providing health care services. These settings include when providing direct care to patients, resource allocation, and staffing. It is important to note that in some situations ethics do not provide answers, but instead, they lead to getting solutions (Burkhardt & Nathaniel, 2013). Sometimes, healthcare providers are faced with situations which may or may not be life threatening, and they make decisions which go beyond their profession or technical concerns. Nurses and physicians often encounter challenges on what ought to be done event in ordinary situations despite the laid down ethics and professional code of conduct (Corey & Callanan, 2014).Consequently, it leads to the health care providers being faced with ethical dilemmas, where one is expected to make a choice from two alternatives. When dealing with ethics, healthcare professionals requires possessing skills, in processes of value clarification, ethical decision making. Health care professionals should be aware that when faced with ethical dilemmas evoke powerful emotions and strong opinions, however, these emotions and opinions are not enough to solve ethical dilemmas (Corey & Callahan, 2014).
Professional nursing actions are supposed to be both legally and ethically right. There are various factors which fuel discrepancies between law and ethics. They include, ethical opinions that reflect individual differences, human behaviors are usually complex to be accurately reflected in law, the legal system judge’s action rather than intention. Finally, rules change according to social and political influences. Therefore, some issues that may appear to be ethically right may in real sense appear to be legally wrong, and those that are legally right may be ethically wrong, therefore posing a challenge in provision of care by health care providers.
From the case scenario, the magistrate appeared to have been in a conversation through the earphones during the time the accident occurred. According to the law, it is wrong to drive while communicating with a cell phone. In this case, it appears as the accident occurred as result of the magistrate being on a call.
Rights
Clients are supposed to be respected and be treated with dignity, to make decisions regarding provision of care and to be actively involved in treatment plan. However, nurses and other health care providers are supposed to act as advocates for those clients who are unconscious, the minors and those that are not in their right mind. These rights should be considered in any set up where care is being provided. Awareness of the client’s rights increases the health care providers’ awareness of the need to treat the clients in an ethical manner and ascertain that the rights of the patients are protected ( O’Donnell, 2015). When nurses are providing care, they should always respect the values, customs and beliefs of their clients.
In the event of accident victims, like in the case of Alex, nurses and other health care providers might have a challenge in attending the accident victims since everybody is entitled to the provision of care. However, due to the limited number of health care providers in the scene one might not be sure who to attend to first. This is because everybody at the accident scene was entitled to medical attention.
Ethical Principles
Ethical principles direct or govern on the best course of action. When nurses and other healthcare professions are making ethical decisions, they should be based on principles. (González-PA chon & Romero, 2016). They reflect on what is best for the patients. When these principles are employed in the nursing field, nurses are in a better position in solving ethical conflicts. Furthermore, these principles can be used as references in analyzing ethical dilemmas and provide rationales to solving ethical problems. However, these principles are not absolute; hence there can be exemptions to every principle in any given situation.
The principle of autonomy outlines that an individual has a right to make a decision and act on it and nurses should respect the client’s rights and protect those unable to decide for themselves. Nurses uphold this principle by accepting the client’s decision even if they are not patient’s best interest (O’Donnell, 2015). Nonmaleficence means that every health care provider has a duty not to cause physiological, physical, social or spiritual harm to others either potential or actual. A nurse is responsible for weighing the potential risks and benefits of any plan of action. When upholding this principle, healthcare providers practices according to their profession and laid down legal standard (González-Pachón & Romero, 2016).
The principle of beneficence states that every health care provider has a fundamental duty to do good and prevent harm. Justice is a principle which is based on the fairness concept, both benefits and burdens should be distributed fairly. All individuals should be treated equally unless there is justification for unfair treatment (Myers & Venable, 2014)
A close relationship exists between ethics and values, and this makes it difficult for the nurses to balance between principles that apply to clients and those that apply to health care systems. Therefore, nurses should examine their value system to be in a position to provide care to clients whose values may differ. (Myers & Venable, 2014). Health care providers should be aware that values are different depending on individuals and are not alike to everybody. Therefore, nurses should be careful not incorporate and practice their values on their patients.
Code of Conduct
Professional code of conduct outlines the nurse’s obligations to clients and the society as a whole. The ethical code provides broad principles for determining and evaluating nursing care. There are professional bodies which deal with the nurses who act unprofessionally. For example, a nurse is supposed to provide care on human dignity and treat clients differently without considering any other factor. Nurses and other health care providers draw their moral guidance from their families, religious beliefs, family and parental values. However, they may not be the only guidance in professional ethics (Lee& Divaris, 2014).
Ethical Conflicts/Ethical Dilemmas
Ethical conflicts result when a person if faced with a decision to make and none is clear since it collides with morality, ethics, justice or personal situations. In health care settings, healthcare providers should evaluate the best choice to take since in some situations doing what is termed as morally right may yield negative impacts while doing morally wrong may result in a positive outcome (DeKeyser ,Ganz & Berkovitz 2011). Furthermore, the moral position can be substantiated or not substantiated. Alex and the colleague might have been faced with a dilemma on the accident victim to attend to.
However, when an ethical conflict is encountered, any healthcare provider should make the best decision which is in line with principles, laid down rules and the law. In the event a person is unable to resolve the conflict, he shall be required to address the consequences. Therefore, it is necessary for health professionals to consult a colleague before undertaking any plan of action and in case a conflict is unresolved, it will necessitate further consultation from the relevant professional body or legal counsel (DeKeyser ,Ganz & Berkovitz 2011).
From the case scenario, both Alex and his colleague might have been faced with a dilemma parting the first victim to attend to. Health care providers are supposed to attend to victims who urgently need care and for this case that’s what Alex did. Unfortunately, the truck driver appeared to be stable despite the orientation and he passed on before being attended to. It is unethical for health care professional to attend to clients when they are under the influence of alcohol. However, it becomes challenging in the event of an accident due to the limited number of healthcare providers at a scene
Ethical Theories
When making a choice between two alternatives, various ideas can be employed so as to help in solving the ethical dilemmas. Ethical theories are used to analyze ethical problems rather than provide answers to ethical conflicts. Teleology stipulates that importance of a situation is based on the outcome and not activity. This theory is founded on the principle of utility which states that for any action to be termed beneficial, it must impact a good number of people in any given situation. Every alternative is assessed for positive and negative outcomes (González-Pachón & Romero, 2016). The selected action is the one that maximizes benefits and minimizes occurrence of any harm.
Deontology applies the criteria of the action itself to determine what is right rather than the consequence. This theory is based on the categorical imperative concept which points out that one should take action if the act applies a universal principle. This means taking an action that one would take when faced with a similar situation (DeKeyser Ganz & Berkovitz, 2011).
Resolution to Ethical Conflicts and Ethical Dilemmas
When an ethical conflict of choice manifests itself, the nurse should be able to identify it and come up with the relevant resolutions. The following are some of the issues that should be factored in to before coming up with a resolution. This includes ethical theories; principals involved, parties that will be affected and the consequences of ethical options. Nurses can be able to make decisions to resolve ethical dilemmas if only they are done systematically (Lo, B, 2012). There exists a need to help address the ethical concerns in health care setting. Formation of an ethics committee will go a long way in addressing the ethical dilemma issue. Also, this committee should formulate policies and procedures which will help in prevention and resolutions of the dilemmas (Kangasniemi, Pakkanen & Korhonen, 2015).
It is of significance for nurses to understand the basis on which they make their decisions. This means that they should think through what needs to be done and provide a rationale for every activity (Shapiro & Stefkovich, 2016). Therefore, it would be important for healthcare providers to know that the decisions they make cannot be based entirely on intuition and emotions instead, they should be based on an ethical basis. Ethical decision making should be made in situations in which the right decision is not clear or where there are conflicts of rights and duties (Shapiro & Stefkovich, 2016).
Conclusion
As professionals, nurses and physicians are obliged to protect the client’s rights and interests. Consequently, sound nursing practice involves making ethical decisions. In every healthcare setting, health care providers are usually faced with ethical concerns, and they are required to balance their ethical responsibilities with their professional obligations. Often a conflict results when a nurse is trying to balance the two. It is, therefore, necessary for health care providers to handle situations putting ethics into consideration. This should necessitate the application of different principles in the profession, justification of actions through the use of ethical theories.
References
Berman, A., Snyder, S.J., Kozier, B., Erb, G., Levett-Jones T., Dwyer, T., Hales, M., Harvey, N., & Stanley, D. (2012). Kozier and erb’s fundamentals of nursing (2nd ed.). Vol 2, NSW: Pearson Sydney Australia.
Burkhardt, M. A., & Nathaniel, A. (2013). Ethics and issues in contemporary nursing. Cengage Learning.
Corey, G. & Callanan, P. (2014). Issues and Ethics in the Helping Professions with 2014 ACA Codes. Nelson Education.
DeKeyser Ganz, F., & Berkovitz, K. (2011). Surgical nurses’ perceptions of ethical dilemmas, moral distress and quality of care. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 68(7), 1516-1525.
Faden, R. R., Beauchamp, T. L., & Kass, N. E. (2014). Informed consent, comparative effectiveness, and learning health care. N Engl J Med, 370(8), 766-768.
Faden, R. R., Kass, N. E., Goodman, S. N., Pronovost, P., Tunis, S., & Beauchamp, T. L. (2013). An ethics framework for a learning health care system: a departure from traditional research ethics and clinical ethics. Hastings Center Report, 43(s1), S16-S27.
Gold, M., Philip, J., Mclver, S., & Komesaroff, P. A. (2012). Between a rock and hard place: Exploring the conflict between respecting the privacy of patient and informing their carers. Internal Medicine Joiurnal, 39(9), 582-587
González-Pachón, J., & Romero, C. (2016). Bentham, Marx and Rawls ethical principles: In search for a compromise. Omega, 62, 47-51.
Hunt, L., Ramjan, L., McDonald, G., Koch, J., Baird, D., & Salamonson, Y. (2015). Nursing students’ perspectives of the health and healthcare issues of Australian Indigenous people. Nurse education today, 35(3), 461-467.
Ingravallo, F., Gilmore, E., Vignatelli, L., Dormi, A., Carosielli, G., Lanni, L., & Taddi, P. (2014). Factors associated with nurse’s opinion and practices regarding information and consent. Nursing Ethics, 2(3), 259-313.
Ion, R., Smith, K., Nimmo, S., Rice, A. M., & McMillan, L. (2015). Factors influencing student nurse decisions to report poor practice witnessed while on placement. Nurse education today, 35(7), 900-905.
Kangasniemi, M., Pakkanen, P., & Korhonen, A. (2015). Professional ethics in nursing: an integrative review. Journal of advanced nursing, 71(8), 1744-1757.
Lee, J. Y., & Divaris, K. (2014). The ethical imperative of addressing health disparities in a unifying framework. Journal of dental research, 93(3), 224-230.
Lo, B. (2012). Resolving ethical dilemmas: a guide for clinicians. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Myers, M. D., & Venable, J. R. (2014). A set of ethical principles for design science research in information systems. Information & Management, 51(6), 801-809.
Nursing and Midwifery Board of Australia. (2010). Nursing and national competency standards for Registered nurse.
O’Donnell, P. (2015). Values and Ethics of Healthcare Social Work. Social Work Practice in Healthcare: Advanced Approaches and Emerging Trends, 127.
Petronio, S., & Sargent, J. (2011). Disclosure Predicaments Arising During the Course of Patient Care: Nurses’ Privacy Management. Health Communication, 26(3), 255-266.
Poikkeus, T., Leino‐Kilpi, H., & Katajisto, J. (2014). Supporting ethical competence of nurses during recruitment and performance reviews–the role of the nurse leader. Journal of nursing management, 22(6), 792-802.
Shapiro, J. P., & Stefkovich, J. A. (2016). Ethical leadership and decision making in education: Applying theoretical perspectives to complex dilemmas. Routledge.
Vayena, E., Salathé, M., Madoff, L. C., & Brownstein, J. S. (2015). Ethical challenges of big data in public health. PLoS Comput Biol, 11(2), e1003904.
Wilson, R. (2012). Legal, ethical and professional concepts with in the operating department. National Institute of Health, 22(3),81-5.
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Faith, Spirituality and Ethics Essay requires 3 points:
1.Discussion of what are spirituality and faith, including sources of beliefs in the Sacred (based on at least one article).
2.Discussion of the value of faith and spirituality for various individuals and groups (based on least one article).
3.Analysis giving your agreement and/or
disagreement with specific items in what you heard and read about the first two points above, giving the reasons for your opinions. You can include
additional considerations which you feel should be included in the discussion of faith and spirituality.
This paper should show that you understand and can
integrate the ideas in the following outcome: Outcome3.1. An understanding of faith and spirituality, and an appreciation for their significance within the human community Criteria Students are able to: 3.1a. Understand faith and spirituality both as matters for intellectual reflection and as styles of life that offer structures, self-awareness, and depth of experience to individuals and communities. 3.1b. Interpret multiple facets of faith and spirituality,
including sources of tradition and beliefs and experiences of God and the Sacred. 3.1c. Understand different religious and non-religious perspectives and value systems central to faith and spirituality.
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3-5 news stories on ethical breakdowns by current business leaders. Discuss the events in the context of why the breakdowns occurred. Was it due to a wrong style, such as using charisma when it did not work? Discuss the concept of traits and behaviors in the context of what makes a great leader. For example, can one behave unethically in their personal lives, but still be a great leader?
You can use examples under disguise.
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Law of Ethics in Advocacy and Healthcare Order Instructions: I have started an essay and need it completed. The question is;
Should patients be provided with advocates in the health system?
Law of Ethics in Advocacy and Healthcare
If yes, under what circumstances?
I will upload my essay at the order page
Law of Ethics in Advocacy and Healthcare Sample Answer
HSHM305 Law, Ethics, Advocacy and Healthcare
Student: Kim Formosa Student ID 220131229
Due Date: 2016
Unit Coordinator: Dr. Mary Ditton
Introduction
Patient advocacy is a sensitive issue because of the various dynamics that revolve around it. There are emotional, psychological, medical and interpersonal reasons to have or not have patient advocacy as part of health care systems. The multitude of issues facing the US health care system includes financing, literacy, chronic diseases, safety, staff and technology. There is the need for patient advocacy in the health care system through the involvement of a patient, his/her family, health care administrators, medical professionals, government authorities, third-party players, planners and policy makers in the processes (Johnson et al., 2008, p. v). Anyone can “advocate” for someone who is a patient. Physicians, nurses, social workers, attorneys, and even friends and relatives of the patient may feel a need to help a patient obtain the care they deserve. Service as a professional patient advocate is a separate calling that has its own boundaries and parameters. I want to start by looking at what a patient advocate is and is not.
There are various circumstances in which advocacy becomes an essential ingredient to the welfare of patients. Some experts contend that during the much needed transformation of the health care system, advocacy should be implemented as a collaborative solution (Johnson et al., 2008, p. v). Advocacy may also be formal or informal depending on the structures which are set up for intervening on behalf of a patient. Structures that are set up by governments or non-governmental organizations may be categorized into formal and informal structures. The watchful eye of relatives and friends who inquire research and clarify on matters pertaining to the welfare of a patient may be categorized as informal or unofficial. Patient advocacy may be necessary at these two levels depending on the exact circumstances which are prevailing. The role of patient advocates may be compared that of healthcare insurance providers. The certainty of healthcare complications does not exist, but when it does emerge it plays the role of a crucial financial solution. A patient may not know that they need intervention in the form of a healthcare advocate until they are in a situation where they are too vulnerable to speak for themselves Patients can be advocated on personal, professional or mandatory level depending on the actual prevailing situation. The discussions in this essay shall be with this major consideration in mind.
History and Background of Patient and Health Care Advocacy
Health care advocates started to exist because of changes in the health care system itself. Technological advancement in health care triggered the rise of real concerns and fears among patients about their ability to access high quality care (Clarke et al., 2015, p. 2). The climate for changing the health care system in the USA was healthy after the civil rights movements of the 1960s. This is because the social issues that were being addressed were sensitive and there was a wave change. The movement for patient rights in the 1970s brought significant attention to the concept of patient advocacy in the United States of America. It is widely known that health care advocacy was pioneered from Mount Sinai Hospital in New York. The role of patient advocacy was lobbied for from different quarters throughout the 1970s. The professionalization of patient advocacy took place in the 1980s. The Association of Patient Service Representatives grew throughout the 1980s and flourished as it continued to specialize in patient advocacy. The nature of the role of an advocate has grown to be adapted by different health care professionals. It may be hypothesized that this role will become a profession of its own over time.
Circumstances in which patients should be provided with advocates in the health care system
Patient advocates may be provided to advocate for the patient and family-centered health care. There are situations in which a health care institution may use patient advocacy as a means of marketing their services. An approach for health care that is centered on the patient and their family forms an effective ground for establishing mutually beneficial partnerships between the patient, family and health care providers (Johnson et al., 2008, p. vi). Allowing families to function as health care advocates is an acknowledgement of the role of this social unit in the improvement of the well-being of patients. This shows that families are crucial allies in matters of quality and safety within the healthcare system. It is difficult to be negligent over a patient when their family members are present and actively making inquiries about every next action which affects their loved one. The rationale behind the allowance of families to participate as patient advocates is somewhat obvious. Many who defend the need for patient advocacy with the exceptional role of families contend that the very young, the very old, the chronically ill, the mentally ill need to informed intervention at all times and so do the ignorant and the uninformed.
Secondly, patient advocates may be provided where there is the possibility that quality of health care may be compromised. Patient advocacy plays an important role in enhancing the quality of health care services (Earp, French & Gilkey, 2008). Patient advocacy is perceived as a powerful pressure source for initiating and following through on necessary changes in healthcare systems. Earp, French and Gilkey draw from professional and personal experiences in order to justify their thesis statement that there is great need for healthcare advocates in the system. Many people have died in hospitals because of poor quality control. Many have been left mimed or lame. Patient advocates empower both patients and their families to be stakeholders in their own well being. This is done by facilitating for communication between a patient’s healthcare professionals. In addition, patients utilize resources that are useful for well-informed decision making processes. The use of information in healthcare advocacy cannot be ignored. The personal touch that existed between the family doctor and his patients has been eliminated by the dynamics of technology, costs of healthcare, the need for specialists and many complexities of the modern healthcare systems. This personal touch can be reignited by increasing prominence of the role of patient advocates. From this perspective, the most prominent role of the patient advocate is to facilitate for accountability. This accountability affects the financial, physical and personal welfare of the patient at all stages. A patient may be too weak to go through the invoice which they receive after several days of in-patient services. The accountants of a hospital, if unchecked, may be tempted to exaggerate costs in order to make a quick dollar. The patient advocate would take time to go through the services and medication which a patient actually used and prevent them from financial vulnerability.
Thirdly, patient advocates may be provided where there is need for change in the manner of health care services delivery. Patient advocates can provide much needed intervention when there is a possibility that health care services are provided with compromise. There are situations in which health care providers must be pushed to change the methods by which they provide health care. In such a situation, the patients’ advocates mediate and ensure that patients receive care when they need it. Advocates also ensure that there is a smooth flow of information between the patients and their care givers, and that all information which is necessary to the patients well being is made available to them. The patient advocate will also be useful if they can regularly identify ways of improving the quality of care made available by talking to the patients about their experience. A second useful patient advocacy intervention is necessary when the employers or insurance company of a patient is delaying or denying the rightful payment of a patient’s medical bills. In such a situation, the patient advocate will engage the insurer, government agency or employer who needs to make changes on the manner which they ensure their interests’ medical bills are covered. Thirdly, patients can be encouraged to be more engaged in their own care by asking questions, making suggestions, coordinating with health care providers, raising concerns and learning more about treatment plans. Patient advocates can speak for the people who are in health care facilities where there is need for changes in methods of service delivery to ensure that relevant alterations are made.
Fourthly, patient advocacy may be provided as part of vocational responsibilities. Some professionals in the health care system will find themselves having to advocate for patients at one point or another. One of the health care professionals who find it inevitable to make patient advocacy part of their job is nurses. Nurses are typically the health care professionals with the most interpersonal contact with the patient and must therefore liaise with different people for the patient’s sake (University Alliance). Patients’ families commonly rely on nurses to pass information and go an extra mile in taking care of patients. Nurses are at times there for patients more than even doctors are. Patients know that they can express their concerns and needs to nurses and find quick and effective solutions. The profession of nursing has been termed as a noble calling because of the extent which one may be called to attend to patients’ needs. The three core values which nurses adhere to when advocating for patients are: patient freedom from suffering, patient equality, and preservation of human dignity (University Alliance). It is the responsibility of a nurse to ensure that all patients are accorded the respect they deserve. This consequently leads to the preservation of a patient’s dignity at a time when a patient is unable to take care of themselves and act in dignified manners because of their condition. Nurses also encourage the fair and equal treatment of all patients with the same levels of professional compassion. Nurses obviously strive to free their patients from physiological suffering.
Law of Ethics in Advocacy and Healthcare and Levels of Patient advocates
There are several levels at which advocates may be categorized. The patient is their first own advocate. Other than advocating for oneself, below are three levels at which patient advocacy may be operated (Community Catalyst, n.d, p. 2);
Policy level advocacy: This is advocacy from a legislative and executive level. The USA has seen Barrack Obama as a very vocal president on the issue of health care. This is policy advocacy. When the leader of the nation speaks about health care as an important issue which each American has a right to, then all the leaders on lower level start to take a keen attention on this issue. The result is the proposal and implementation of laws and regulation which support health care. This should be done explicitly for patient advocacy so that every American may have the right to a patient advocate whenever they are receiving the services of the patient advocates.
System-level advocates: The health care industry is a system which may undergo changes. Some of the changes in the different units of the health care system, such as hospitals and pharmacies may affect the consumer/patient. Changes in prices of medication or costs of services in hospitals can affect patients’ ability to find access to health care. Systematic patient advocates can help vocalize and protect the rights of patients when changes in health care systems and units affect their ability to find access to health care services.
Individual level advocates: Consumers/patients and their own families should be responsible for their own wellbeing. Professionals in charge of patient welfare are individual level advocates be they hired or family. These people share the experience of the patient by going through the health care system with them and vocalizing their concerns, needs, complaints and general position. Evidence shows that patients who take part in their own health care or appoint advocates generally get better health care out comes and experiences. Private patient advocates do not have any affiliations with health care providers. They operate independently as consultants for their patients and keep a record of the patients’ health needs. The services of private patient advocates include: scheduling appointments, settling disputes relating to hospital bills, handling insurance claims, assisting with purchases of medical equipment, researching medical treatments, and attending doctor visits. Without governance, these types of organisations could potentially take advantage of our most vulnerable.
Professional advocates provide services to patients and those supporting them who are navigating the complex healthcare system. Advocates may work independently or in medical or other organisational settings, serving individuals, communities, disease‐specific populations, and family caregivers. The role of an advocate is informational, not medical. Advocates are committed to helping clients and client communities make informed choices and access resources;
Law of Ethics in Advocacy and Healthcare and Barriers and Facilitators of Patient Advocacy
There are some factors that act as barriers of the process of patient advocacy. On the other hand, there are facilitators for smooth and effective patient advocacy. Negarandeh et al (2006) found the following existing barriers and facilitators of patient advocacy in their research study using interviews on different people in the health care system. Barriers include: powerlessness, lack of law and code of ethics, lack of support for nurses, physicians leading, limited communication, risks involved in advocacy, peer loyalty, and low levels of motivation.
Powerlessness: Sometimes the nurses and health care professionals are following institutional instructions that make them unable to attend to the needs of the patient as advocates. Nurses may fear taking up advocacy roles because they may lose their job if things go wrong following their intervention.
Lack of Law and Code of Ethics: when there is no explicit code of ethics pertaining to patient advocacy, health care professionals do not know what to do. Some may over commit while others may be negligent. There is always need for a code of ethics and laws relating to patient care.
Lack of support for nurses: when nurses and other health care professionals are not supported institutionally and by patients’ families, they fail to be effective advocates. Advocacy is a job that requires cooperation and coordination.
Physicians leading: Many heath care professionals would like to follow the lead of a doctor who advocates for the patients. These leaders inspire the faculty to be keen on patient needs and conditions.
Limited communication: Communication is a vital component of patient advocacy. Smooth communication enables the patient to express their needs and health care professionals to respond accordingly.
Risks involved in advocacy: There is always the risk of things going wrong after the intervention of a health care professional for a patient’s sake. When this occurs, the professional gets in trouble. This discourages patient advocacy at all levels.
Peer loyalty: When the system is made up of people who are concerned for the patients then patient advocacy becomes a culture of a health care institution. When peers influence each other to negligence, there is low level peer advocacy for the different patients.
Low levels of motivation: When working conditions are poor, the nurses and health care professionals are de-motivated. A poor working environment does not inspire empathy and care. This lowers the levels of patient advocacy.
Facilitators in patient advocacy include: nurse-patient relationships, recognizing and paying attention to patients’ needs and conditions, nurses’ responsibility, physician as a colleague, and a nurse’s knowledge and skills.
Nurse-patient relationships: The better the relationships between patients and their families and healthcare professionals the better the levels of patient advocacy. Patients and healthcare professionals should work together to reach the objective of health restoration.
Recognizing and paying attention to patients’ needs and conditions: When healthcare professionals pay attention to the needs of patients, it becomes easy to speak on their behalf. Attentive nurses and doctors and other health care professionals are a vital component to patient advocacy.
Nurses’ responsibility: Responsibility and accountability may be coupled to facilitate for higher levels of patient advocacy. When the nurse feels the ethical responsibility for the patient, then they are more likely to advocate for them way better than if they are negligent and without care.
Physician as a colleague: the doctor must be willing to function as a colleague of the other health care professionals. A surgeon who doesn’t listen to his assistants or a doctor who is too harsh to his nurses is a barrier. A physician who is a good colleague and the one who is easy to work with is a facilitator for patient advocacy.
Nurse’s knowledge and skills: The knowledge and skills of health care professionals is a facilitator for patient advocacy. Knowledgeable nurses, for example, may be an irreplaceable facilitator for the patients under their care.
Taken together, all of this information tells us what a patient advocate does: provision of services to patients as they navigate the healthcare systems; working directly with patients to give them a voice in their wellbeing; working to ensure that patient are well informed to make proper decisions concerning their wellbeing; playing an informational role; assisting patients in making informed decisions and accessing resources; ensuring that the wishes of a patient are the guiding force behind healthcare decisions; and collaborating with other members of the health team.
A patient advocate, however, should only: recommend specific treatment choices; avoid providing clinical opinions or perform medical care of any type, even if they possess clinical credentials; and avoid diagnosing or prescribing any medical/mental health treatment for clients, even if the advocate has additional licensure or training.
Therefore, even if clinical capacity is present, a patient advocate must not provide a diagnosis, provide clinical opinions, recommend or prescribe any specific tests or treatment, or perform hands-on care. Basically, if the service is clinical in whole or in part, the patient advocate must not provide it. If such a clinical service does occur, the person providing it is no longer acting as a patient advocate.
There is a significant conflict of interest when one person tries to wear both clinical and advocate hats. Unbiased advocacy may diverge from the clinical care and advice that is provided to a patient. To be truly patient-centered, a patient advocate must be vigilant to identify, disclose and avoid conflicts of interest, not create them.
The question of whether clients should be provided with an advocate or not needs to be taken on a case by case basis looking at the reasons, settings and status of current caregivers. Providing an advocate without taking a person’s capacity, needs and opinions into account is something I do not believe is necessary. Many clients can successfully advocate on their own behalf, therefore they would not require referral to an advocate. The question of whether all people are “offered” as opposed to being provided is different. Even people with the capacity to advocate for themselves should be provided with information on how to access an advocate at any stage in their healthcare needs; they should be able to opt in and out of advocacy services according to the situation and reason. People who also may require assistance could be some people who may experience difficulty speaking up for them. People need advocates in healthcare settings for all sorts of reasons, which can stem from assisting them to access services, change services, choose the appropriate service for them, communicate with service providers and negotiate difficult situations perhaps ones that may need conflict resolution. An advocate can also be asked to get involved if a person doesn’t feel like they are being treated as an equal in the process, when there is a clear difference between what the team is advocating for and their opinion of what is needed. Staff in healthcare settings would need the skills to ascertain this need and help support the person to make a decision if they felt they may need an advocate (Brown-Saracino, 2010).
However, there is a view that maybe advocacy tends to cast suspicion on the connection between the patient and his/her care provider, leading to an unprecedented appearance. This implies that patient and healthcare providers will be conflicting over finding a cure, and that wellbeing care authorities may not genuinely pursue the interests of the patient.
This description insinuates a complicated advocate-patient relationship. Essentially, the connection between a patient’s best outcomes and wellbeing and health care provider forms the basis for all healthcare choices and relationships. As such, there’s no actual motive to presume that patients want anyone to make certain decisions on their behalves (Brown-Saracino, 2010).
I have wondered if the emerging trend of private advocates may cause ethical issues for the future. I cannot help but imagine the possibilities of detrimental outcomes for people if they are required to pay for a service and that service is driven by its profit and bottom line. If agencies charge for an advocacy service yet have no personal connection to a patient can they find themselves not emotionally connected and therefore let things slip or not push hard enough or worse still convince people of the easiest path for their own time management.
Law of Ethics in Advocacy and Healthcare References
Brown-Saracino, J. (2010). A neighborhood that never changes: Gentrification, social preservation, and the search for authenticity. University of Chicago Press.
Clarke, K., Pederesen, K & Sanalucia, C. (2015). Patient Advocate: A Critical Role in Patient Experience. The Beryl Institute. Retrieved from
http://jgh.ca/uploads/PACWP.pdf
Community Catalyst. (n.d). The Path to a People-Centered Health System: Next Generation Consumer Health Advocacy. Retrieved from
Earp, J., French, E. & Gilkey, M. (2008). Patient Advocacy for Health care Quality: Strategies for Achieving Patient-Centered Care. Sudbury, Massachusetts. Jones and Bartlett.
Johnson, B., Abraham, M., Conway J., Laurel S., Edgman-Levitan, S, Sodomka, P., Schlucter, J. & Ford, D. (2008). Partnering With Patients and Families to Design a Patient- and Family –Centered Health Care System: Recommendations and Promising Practices. California HealthCare Foundation. Retrieved from
Please note that when you log into the website you must click launch class, and on the next screen click syllabus to view this week’s readings (week 4) and Academic Resources to access the school’s library.
To support work, use the course and text readings and also use outside sources. As in all assignments, cite your sources in your work and provide references for the citations in APA format.
Identifying Ethical Challenges Faced by Employees of the Organization for Your Final Project: Working toward Becoming a Socially Responsible Company
Research and review the ethical challenges regarding employees (i.e., diversity, discrimination, sexual harassment, privacy, employee theft, bad leadership, etc.) that your chosen organization has faced over the past five to ten years and that they should prepare to face in the next five to ten years. Once you have developed a list of challenges, consider how having faced those challenges (or knowing that you will be facing them) will impact and be impacted by the social cause you’ve selected.
Ethical Challenges Faced by Employees of Organization Deliverable
In a 3- to 5-page Microsoft Word document, present your findings on the ethical challenges faced by your approved global, publicly traded organization in recent history and the near future. Be sure to:
• Discuss ways in which each challenge was (and/or could be) appropriately handled and areas for improvement.
• Investigate and explain the ethical/moral aspects of your organization that have in the past or could in the future protect it from ethical challenges.
• Detail how this information could positively or negatively impact the charitable cause you’ve selected and how the selection of your social cause could positively or negatively impact the company and its employees.
Justify your reasoning and cite course materials and articles from your research and the South University Online Library.
Please use the most current data available.
Ethical Challenges Faced by Employees of Organization Sample Answer
Identifying Ethical Challenges Faced by Employees of the Organization
Introduction
General motor’s Ltd remains one of the functional entities that serve as the back born of the U.S economy. In respect to this, it is essential to establish that recently, the company faced some ethical challenges that need to be justified (Adela & Monica, 2011). One of the astounding questions that rose from this ethical challenge remains as to why the company chose to build and sell its products to millions of its consumers when they knew the product was potentially fatal to its users. This clearly details the ethical commitment of establishing solutions to address such an ethical challenge within the organization, an aspect that this paper seeks to establish.
Ethical Challenges Faced by Employees of the Organization
The genesis of this controversy resulted when this giant car manufacturer failed in recalling its faulty cars at the required time, known very well of the existence of a problem for a long time. The problem that GM encountered is linked to its vehicles detent plunger, a spring within the ignition switch that provides enough torque to vehicles and holds the key in the switch to avoid turning off the car’s engine (Calderón, Ferrero & Redin, 2012). As a result of this, several clients experienced technical problems since the ignition keys fell off the switch, thus shutting down the engine and disabling other safety functionalities that are powered by the engine of a car.
According to Kant’s maxims theory, it was improbable for the company’s executives to unknowingly drive faulty cars. On the other hand, it would not be justified that GM’s employees would be in a position to risk their lives driving these faulty vehicles, an aspect that proves the fact that they had an idea about the dangers of these vehicles and neglected these aspects. According to Calderón, Ferrero & Redin (2012).it is questionable whether the company’s employees were comfortable not knowing that a multitude of the products they use on a daily basis was lethal (pp.234).
Through their inaction, the company left the faulty ignition systems to go through the production process, an aspect that resulted in the generation of millions of faulty vehicles. In this case, it is important that the employees had the capacity to detect the problem and prevent the fatalities that resulted from these faulty vehicles (Calderón, et.al.2012). The results of these technical errors, 13 deaths, and 35 car crashes were recorded, an aspect that saw the company link these accidents to the failure to use airbags. GM also recorded a loss of close to 30 million cars, an aspect that affected its operations.
In accordance with the utilitarian theory, the choices of the company must have been made in light of the consequences that would result. On the other hand, deontological theories also assert that every rational company needs to act in accordance with reason and duty. However, GM ignored these consequences and chose to continue producing faulty cars, an aspect that affected millions of its consumers in the U.S (Calderón, et.al.2012). In this case, it is important to establish that the actions of this company contradicted the Utilitarian and Deontological ideologies on ethical actions, an aspect that makes it difficult to justify their actions in light of ethical responsibility towards their loyal customers. This clearly necessitates a clear path for GM that would guide its future decisions and protect it from ethical challenges in order to become an ethical driving force
Ethical/Moral Aspects of GM That Would Protect It from Ethical Challenges
GM needs to ensure it takes actions aimed at guiding its ethical conduct as noted in the utilitarian theory since its actions have only benefited a few individuals. GM should ensure that all its future actions define the best interests of the largest population, an aspect that holds on the principle of welfare and happiness of the consumers and the general public above the profits and concerns of the company (Hanson, 2014). In addressing these issues, the company needs to direct its monetary profits from the sales of its products in an escrowed kit that funds victims affected. Through this, the company will be in a position to prevent the future pain that families affected by the loss of their loved ones face.
On the other hand, GM needs to incorporate workplace policies as defined in the company’s mission, vision, philosophy and codes of conduct into its performance management initiatives, an aspect that would see the employees of the company held accountable for any actions and alerts them to the need to uphold their responsibilities to professional standards (Hanson, 2014). GM would additionally need to revise its employee handbook to include these newly developed policies and ensure that copies are provided to the employees, also obtaining acknowledgments from the employees that they understand these ethics.
Alternatively, the company may be required to incorporate workplace ethics training for its employees, through the use of different instruction methods that ensure the employees are engaged in learning how to establish and address some of the ethical dilemmas they face (Hanson, 2014). In this case, it is advisable to incorporate a role-play or experiential learning approach in fostering workplace ethics training.
Ethical Challenges Faced by Employees of Organization and The Impact of This Information in Impacting the Causes Detailed for GM
One of the positive impacts of this information in impacting the causes established that would guide GM in making ethical considerations in the future is the initiation of moral behaviors within an organization since most ethical issues that arise in organizations result from individualized decisions (Brown, Buchholtz & Dunn, 2016). In this case, the organization will be in a position to promote a community within the organization that communicates and shares some of the ethical challenges that may arise. It is, however, important to note that this change may result in conflict especially from employees who would resist such changes, an aspect that may negatively impact the inclusion of these approaches in the functions of the organization.
Ethical Challenges Faced by Employees of Organization Conclusion
In view of the ethical challenge that GM faced, it is important for the company to take consideration of developing initiatives and approaches aimed at addressing these challenges and instilling positive workplace values that are compliant to the element of ethics.
Ethical Challenges Faced by Employees of Organization References
Adela, Z. L., & Monica, T. R. (2011). The Specific Market Research Methodology Used At General Motor’s Europe. Annals of the University Of Oradea, Economic Science Series, 20(2), 209-214. Retrieved From: http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=bth&AN=71959430&site=ehost-live
Brown, J. A., Buchholtz, A. K., & Dunn, P. (2016). Moral Salience and the Role of Goodwill in Firm-Stakeholder Trust Repair. Business Ethics Quarterly, 26(2), 181-199. doi:10.1017/beq.2016.27. Retrieved From:http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=bth&AN=116112185&site=ehost-live
Effects of Ethics Laws and Regulations on Organizations Order Instructions: Write a paper evaluating how a company system of ethics, case law, and statue, as well as government regulations, affect business organizations. Further, discuss how such should help protect the general public from harm or unfair business practices.
Effects of Ethics Laws and Regulations on Organizations
7 scholarly sources is a must
Effects of Ethics Laws and Regulations on Organizations Sample Answer
Effects of Ethics, Laws, and Regulations on Organizations
The achievement of an organization’s vision is dependent on its adherence to the code of ethics, government regulations and laws. The code of ethics stipulates the relationship between an organization with employees, suppliers, the society, and the global market. When an organization places emphasis on protecting the rights of individuals, its reputation is enhanced leading to its profitability and sustainable growth (Chevron, 2016). The government sets out policies that regulate the operations of an organization in the form of taxes, global trade, bureaucracies, and employee relations. Laws control the activities and decisions of a firm and make them take responsibility for their actions (Gia, 2012).
If there are no laws or ethical systems, the market would be corrupted with illegal business activities and monopoly powers that would deprive employees and consumers their rights. For instance, The US Department of Labor was set up to act as the intermediary between employer and employees to deal with their grievances and advocate for their rights, the Federal Trade Commission protects consumers from dishonest companies, and Environmental Protection Agency ensures that both consumers and organizations are protective of the environment. A sound ethical system is essential in ensuring that a firm follows the laid down regulations and is protective of the general public.
The effect of ethics in business organizations
A system of ethics consists of values that a firm uses in its activities. The principles that an organization applies affects its public image, profitability, and survival. According to Luanne (2013), the code of ethics comprises of leadership ethics, employee ethics, supplier ethics, and it shapes the culture and values of a firm. Apple’s supplier code of ethics governs the operations and decisions of its suppliers and sets up measures and standards that are to be followed failure to which disciplinary action, including contract termination, are enacted. For Example, the company’s suppliers are supposed to give employees leave and off-days, institute proper waste management procedures, carry out communal activities and uphold integrity in all their operations.
Through the ethical system, all employers and employees are aware of their responsibilities and rights in an organization. Consumers and the general public can as well use the code to sue an organization if they’re wrongfully attended to, or demand a firm to perform activities in a certain way. Through the code, activists can activate for the rights of children by demanding firms to refrain from employing underage children. Thus, a firm is supposed to prioritize the ethical system but not just a moral or legal obligation since it is the foundation through which its activities should be based on (Stephen, 2015).
Managerial code of ethics: Managerial ethics affect the productivity of employees and their perception towards the organization. Employees follow the steps of their leaders thus when managers have high ethical standards, they pass the same to the workers leading to a shared vision. Moreover, leaders are supposed to enact ethics that stipulate the expected behavior of the employees and disciplinary actions liable if they are not followed. Since leaders mirror an organization to the internal and external stakeholders, the exercise of high ethical standards, including loyalty, honesty, and integrity goes a long way in ensuring that a firm gets a reputation that translates to profits.
The employee code of ethics: In every firm, there are set standards that govern the activities of employees. For instance, customer care clerks are supposed to be friendly and listen to the needs of clients in a warm way and accountants should follow International Accounting Standards while preparing financial statements. All employees should prioritize the goals of the firm and perform their duties honestly. Otherwise, the organization has the right of punishing the employees through suspension, retrenchment or filing for a case. Ethical standards ensure that employees produce quality goods and services and are productive leading to the growth of a firm.
iii. The supplier system of ethics: To ensure consistency in production and quality, a firm designs a code of ethics that suppliers follow while carrying out their operations. The suppliers must align their activities to the expectations of the firm if they seek a long-term and beneficial relationship with the firm. The ethical system ensures that suppliers provide quality materials, are on time, and represent the company in a reputable manner leading.
Effects of government regulations on businesses
Regulations are enacted to control the activities of businesses and protect consumers from exploitation, control profits, and protect the environment (Mitchelle, 2012). Taxes and tariffs are the most common types of policies that affect every organization. After an accounting period, firms publicize their profits and the government through the established bodies takes a percentage of their profits. Thus, taxes affect a number of profits that a business earns at the end of a financial period. The high the gross profits, the more the tax. Trade regulators enact policies that affect the interest rates charged by financial institutions and also the globalization procedures. For instance, some governments regulate the type and number of imports into a country which affects the activities of the business. To protect domestic industries, international firms gave strict policies in the form of taxes or type of operation that they can carry out or the production capacity. All these policies affect the productivity and profitability of a firm negatively or positively. Other common regulations are in advertising, health and safety, labor and employment, and environmental.
Policies on product promotion: The Federal Trade Commission was put in place to control the affairs of businesses with regards to advertisements. Through the commission, consumers are protected from sub-standard products and services. The commission examines products before businesses launch them in the market and they also have to pass through Standard Bureaus to ensure that they conform to the expected quality standards. Advertisements must be honest and non-exploitive, firms should be in a position to back-up the adverts, and they must not be unfair to competitors. Moreover, each product must have information relating to its size, expiry date, and content. Failure to adhere to the set standards can lead to disciplinary actions taken against a firm.
Labor relations and recruitment: Regulators set laws that affect benefits, minimum salaries, working conditions, health and safety, confidentiality, and recruitment opportunities. Through the Fair Labor Standards Act, organizations are mandated on how they are to treat and compensate workers while the Department of Labor mediates between employers and employees to ensure that the demands of both parties are considered. Other policies are on insurance, employee compensation in case of damages, and Social Security.
iii. Health and safety policies: Health Act provides for the safety standards that firms must follow. Inspection for compliance is usually done by regulators who insist that products must be processed in a clean environment and the employees must be protected from injuries. Moreover, the Act stipulates that employers should take insurance cover that compensates employees in case of injuries while in the line of duty.
Confidentiality: During recruitment exercises, companies collect private information such as personal numbers, address, and health situation. Employers are thus supposed to keep such information confidential unless a required during a court proceeding. If the information is used against an employee or used without the consent of an individual, the injured has a right to sue a firm.
Corporate social responsibility and environment: Environmental agencies exist to train and educate firms on correct disposal and environment management techniques. With the continued increase in population, much of the land is taken up by industries and humans thus leading to environmental pollution. To ensure that the environment is safe from air, water, and land pollution, the agencies set up by the government provide firms with resources that can be used to dispose of waste. Firms are supposed to be socially responsible such that they establish infrastructures in accordance to set environmental laws and also get involved in community activities such as clearing and planting trees to protect the environment.
How regulations and ethical systems protect the public from unfair business practices
Constitutional, case and statutory laws are enacted to provide guidelines through which people and businesses are to conduct themselves. Since there are different industries with diverse product portfolios, the government comes in to ensure that order is maintained and that consumers are not exploited. According to Berger (2013), the constitution acts as the system through which other laws are established and provide for the way cases are solved through the different jurisdiction bodies. If any member of the public or an organization is wronged, they have a constitutional right to sue the perpetrator.
An ethical system protects the public by making firms liable for damages that they experience as a result of their malpractices. Since businesses are mandated to consider the rights of workers and the community while conducting their operations, the code of ethics establishes that it’s their responsibility to correct any problem that arises as a result of their actions (Chevron, 2016). For instance, if a manufacturing firm disposes of waste that leads to land infertility or diseases, the responsible firm should take measures to eliminate pollution and ensure that the affected get medical treatment. Moreover, agencies responsible for environmental conservation can sue the firm on behalf of the public and advocate disciplinary actions against the firm. With such agencies and measures in place, firms usually take caution while carrying out their operations to avoid damaging their reputation.
Policies on advertising and product promotions protect the public from toxic and unfair prices. Before products are advertised, firms must pass them through the agencies as well as quality regulators to ensure that they are of the correct standards and quantity. By having correct labels, descriptions of content and quantity, consumers can make unbiased judgments and buy products that fit their specific needs. Prices set are also fair and in accordance with the current market conditions such that unfair competition is avoided giving the public the power to choose from different substitutes. If such policy did not exist, the monopoly would lead to the provision of over-priced products that are of poor quantity. By enacting rules that preserve the privacy of employees and other people that send their details seeking for employment, regulators protect the public from the wrongful handling of their personal information. Hence, people give out personal information without the fear of defamation or being exploited, and if it happens, there are instituted channels through which they can air their grievances and compensated as required.
Through case and statutory laws, consumers are able to file for damages and get a compensated if the firms are found culpable. For instance, if a firm sells products that do not conform to set standards or an employee is injured in the course of duty and firms do not compensate, they have a right to take the matter to a court of law. Thus, the government through statutory bodies acts as an intermediary between aggrieved parties and the firms. For instance, employees can sue a firm if they are mistreated or unfairly compensated for work done. In addition to the statutory bodies, labor agencies also mediate by setting minimum wage rates thus protecting the employees from exploitation by firms.
Moreover, trade regulations assist in protecting less privileged nations from exploitation by foreign firms through the heavy tax, entry barriers, and heavy fines in case of wrongful practices. Otherwise, developing nations would be run by monopolies which would misuse their resources and charge high prices for their products with no or little return to the citizens of the country. Also, ethical systems ensure that foreign firms consider the residents of the regions in employment opportunities as some tend to only employ workers from their respective countries. Hence, the members of the community get employment opportunities and a chance to grow by being part of the industries.
Through the constitution, the government sets out laws and regulations that govern the way firms carry out their operations, treat their employees and other stakeholders, and the society at large. If there were no laws and regulations, the public would be exploited by firms through wrongful product descriptions and pricing, confidential information would be wrongfully handled, and employees unfairly compensated. Thus, businesses are supposed to familiarize with the established local and international regulations so that they carry out their activities in an ethical way. Failure to follow the set out standards can lead the regulatory bodies to an organization which is damaging to its reputations.
All firms have their set of ethical principles that are specific to leaders, employees, suppliers, and the overall firm (Chevron, 2016). Leaders are supposed to be of integrity and carry out their activities honestly since they represent the organization, and they are the role models for employees. If the leaders are ethical, employees become motivated to work for the firm leading to high productivity and profits. On the other hand, employees should also be ethical in how they carry out their duties and how they treat customers to ensure the reputation of the firm is upheld. Supplier code of ethics also stipulates the ethical concerns with respect to how they treat their workers and the neighboring community, taking care of the environment, and safety conditions. Since firms are made responsible for their actions through the established ethical systems and statutory laws and regulations, the public and other regulatory agencies have the right to file complaints and sue firms if they are unfairly treated. Thus, following set rules and ethical systems should be prioritized by all firms to ensure that they survive in the market.
Effects of Ethics Laws and Regulations on Organizations References
Janie, B. (2013). Ethics in organizations and leadership, 3 (34), Jones and Barlett. Retrieved from http://www.jblearning.com/samples/0763749761/EthicalLeaderhip.pdf
Stephen, B. (2015). The role of ethics in 21st-century organizations, 11. Retrieved from http://www.regent.edu/acad/global/publications/lao/issue_11/brimmer.htm
Luanne, K. (2013). The importance of ethics in organizations. Retrieved from http://smallbusiness.chron.com/importance-ethics-organizations-20925.html
Mitchell, H. (2012). Areas of business regulation in business. Retrieved from http://smallbusiness.chron.com/five-areas-government-regulation-business-701.html
Berger, H. (2013). Sources of law. Retrieved from http://www.businesslawbasics.com/chapter-5-sources-law
Chevron (2016). Business conduct and ethics code, 3(30). Retrieved from https://www.chevron.com/~/media/chevron/shared/documents/chevronbusinessconductethicscode
Gia, W. (2012). Effects of business regulations, 2(10), Doing Business. Retrieved from http://www.doingbusiness.org/reports/global-reports/~/media/GIAWB/Doing%20Business/Documents/Annual-Reports/English/DB14-Chapters/DB14-Research-on-the-effects-of-business-regulations.pdf
Evaluating Three Ethical Theories Order Instructions: Write a paper evaluating three ethical theories.
Evaluating Three Ethical Theories
Compare and contrast as well as discuss the strengths and weakness of each.
Also, the paper must be written in accordance with APA writing standards. The appropriate citation is required and 7 scholarly sources is a must.
Evaluating Three Ethical Theories Sample Answer
Evaluating Three Ethical Theories
Introduction
People who engage in research studies that involve human beings as their subjects are required to adhere to regular procedures aimed at obtaining an ethical approval. When a problem is encountered within a community or an organization, people are bound to resort to different ethical views and opinions that depend on their personalized views. The existence of various ethical positions on an action may result in different judgments.
Such ethical judgment’s positions on an action are primarily categorized into three main theories. These theories include the principles or deontological theories, consequential or utilitarian approaches, and virtues theories. This paper seeks to provide a comparative and contrastive evaluation on the three principle theories that establish the manner in which judgments are made and applied in an ethical manner.
Consequentiality Theory
This ethical theory emphasizes on the repercussions and consequences of a specified course of action. In consideration of this ethical theory, an institution or individual is in a position to provide a judgment on a specified action based on the possibility of its effects to an action (Paul & Elder, 2011). According to this ethics of consequences, the effects of an action are likely to establish the worthiness of an ethical action.
When a society considers the outcomes of some particular actions as immoral, then such an action is considered unethical within the values of such a society. The end results of this ethical theory are noted in its advantage that achieves a predetermined action to the consequences of some unethical conduct with the aim of maintaining the society’s happiness, knowledge, and resources (Paul & Elder, 2011). Thus, it is important to establish that the extreme position of this theory lies in the fact that the end has the capacity to justify the means.
Deontological Theory
The deontological theory on the other hand is considered as an ethics of principles. According to Winebrenner (2012), this is an ethical judgment approach that is primarily based on an action rather than its consequences. In the ethics of principles, an argument is provided that details the need to establish actions that abide and adhere to ethical principles that are perceived as moral (pp.115). When this is not achieved, such an action may be considered as immoral. For instance, respect, justice, and honesty are some of the actions that adhere to the moral principles of different societies.
According to the views of Kant and Maxim, there is a need to treat each and every person as an end in their selves but not as a means only. These philosophers also detail that individuals need to act as if the maxim of their actions is the only universal law that is in existence in nature.
This principle of ethics is consequently classified as the primary rules that guide ethics in different research studies (Winebrenner, 2012). In this case, it is important to consider that this principle is advantageous since its intentional position may result into a moral dictated state. The primary aim of this ethical theory is to ensure individual abide and adhere to absolute principles irrespective of their specific actions that resonate around their human consequences.
Virtue Theory:
The virtue theory is also known as the ethics of utilitarianism. The ethical consideration of this theory opines the need to asses a sensitive approach within the context of a specified action. In other words, the ethics of utilitarianism initiates a judgment position that views ethical behaviors of researchers as an extent in which a researcher is required to internalize and understand the moral values of a community in the study (Bowie, 2015). This establishes the need of the researcher to display a personal integrity in developing a relationship with the community they conduct their studies, an aspect that is inspired by their interactions with the ethical values of such a community.
Under this theory, the judgment position of a researcher wholly depends on his feelings, perceptions, and skills including his/her ability to negotiate with those to ascent to participate in a study within a community (Bowie, 2015). This is supported by the fact that the feelings and perceptions of a researcher may vary depending on the ethical background of a researcher, an aspect that may result in the survival of a study without the inclusion of procedures and regulations.
Evaluating Three Ethical Theories and Comparison of these Theories
The deontological theory of ethics and the consequential theory are significantly similar since they are known to raise similar questions. The two theories are bound to raise questions that tend to consider whether there are ethical principles that exist (Oh & Yoon, 2014). On the other hand, these two theories are known to contradict the objective that it is important to develop internal principles that are aimed at providing judgment in absolutism.
Alternatively, the deontological theory of ethics and the consequential theory also raise questions that establish whether the principles ethics of a community rely upon their values. The consequentiality theory therefore supports the theory of deontological principles in justifying the view that the ethical position of an action relies in the end results of an action (Oh & Yoon, 2014). In this case, it is arguable that the society has the capacity to form principles that guide their judgment on different actions based on the received outcomes of such actions. The society on the other hand has the capacity to set principles that guide their actions in abiding to the predicted outcomes of these actions.
Evaluating Three Ethical Theories and Contrast of the Theories
It is important to note that these three ethical theories emphasize on a different element that relates to different ethical decisions and choices. In this case, it can be established that certain actions may result in different outcomes that is detailed in each theory (Oh & Yoon, 2014). For instance, a researcher may consider cheating a community on the intent of his research with the aim of achieving his goals while maintaining a positive image to the community about his study. The principle of deontological ethics therefore differs with the researchers approach since it supports the need for honesty as a universal principle, an aspect that rejects the action of deception even when the outcomes of the study to the community and the researcher are beneficial.
In contrast to this, the consequentiality theory may tend to justify such deceptive actions committed by a researcher based on the consideration that the study may benefit the community by yielding positive outcomes to the society in bettering their wellbeing and knowledge. However, the principle of ethics of value may regard its judgment based on the researchers reasoning capacity and ethical skills within the research context (Bonner, 2016). In any case, the deception is perceived by a community as ethical then such an action may be justified as moral. In a case where the deceptive action of the researcher is viewed as unethical within a community, then his actions are nullified and deemed as unethical or immoral.
Evaluating Three Ethical Theories Strengths and Weaknesses of the Theories
Strengths:
The consequentiality theory can be applied in different situations since its decisions are measured against the outcomes and consequences of different actions. This is different from the deontology principle that requires rules that govern such ethical decisions, with decisions failing to have a rule associated with them (Yazdani & Murad, 2015). On the other hand, virtue ethics takes an examination of a decision within the context of an individual’s character, an aspect that is disapproved by dispositions that are considered as virtues. On the other hand, the consequentiality principle can be applied systematically, especially when the values of consequences are established in a practical life setting.
On the other hand, the deontological theory is essential in ensuring that the motivation behind every action is values over its consequences. In this case, an immoral action may not be justified by perceived good consequences but good motives are considered as the worth of value (Yazdani & Murad, 2015). On the other hand, this principle believes that justice is absolute even in a case where majority of the population does not benefit from it, thus recognizing the value of moral absoluteness.
The ethics of utilitarianism also known as virtue theory focuses on the maximization of the overall good, thus seeking to understand the good of others as well as that of an individual (Yazdani & Murad, 2015). This therefore, guides individuals in making ethical decisions that bring pleasure for the greatest population.
Weaknesses:
The application of the consequentiality theory in the decision making process is considered as time-consuming and complex since it requires that consequences are identified within the process and accounted (Albert, Reynolds & Turan, 2015). Secondly, the application of this process results in a limitation since individuals may be challenges in ascertaining the consequences of an action in marking a perfect decision or judgment.
The deontological theory also complicates the process of decision making since moral obligations are considered as arbitrary since the decisions of individuals are influenced by several factors, an aspect that questions whether duty remains a good motive as suggested by Kant.
Lastly, the ethics of utilitarianism may result in the development of decisions that may violate the human rights of different individuals if applied in decision making (Albert, et.al.2015). This is attributed to the fact that what is perceived as good for some individuals may on the other hand violate the rights of others. An instance of this can be depicted in a middle class individual needing an organ transplant.
When such an individual donates a huge chunk of money to a charity in exchange for an organ transplant, the principle of utilitarianism takes cognizance of these actions and considers it ethical since good results from the recipient of the organ would result from the donation made (Albert, et.al.2015). However, other individuals may perceive this as unethical since the individual uses his wealth as an advantage to achieve his goal.
Evaluating Three Ethical Theories Conclusion
As established, the three ethical principles discussed in this study provide different grounds under which judgments are made within different contexts. Under a normal circumstance, a judgment is made based on the general principles, the community’s perceptions, and consequences of an action that depend on the moral outcomes of ac action.
Evaluating Three Ethical Theories References
Albert, L., Reynolds, S., & Turan, B. (2015). Turning Inward or Focusing Out? Navigating Theories of Interpersonal and Ethical Cognitions to Understand Ethical Decision-Making. Journal Of Business Ethics, 130(2), 467-484. doi:10.1007/s10551-014-2236-2. Retrived From: http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=bth&AN=108674076&site=ehost-live
Bonner, K. (2016). Arendt, role theory and the ethical evaluation of an action. Irish Journal Of Sociology, 24(2), 200-225. doi:10.7227/IJS.0007. Retrived From: http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=116865441&site=ehost-live
Bowie, N. (2015). Richard De George and the Use of Ethical Theory in Applied Ethics. Journal Of Business Ethics, 127(4), 699-706. doi:10.1007/s10551-014-2179-7. Retrived From: http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=bth&AN=101805212&site=ehost-live
Oh, J., & Yoon, S. (2014). Theory-based approach to factors affecting ethical consumption. International Journal Of Consumer Studies, 38(3), 278-288. doi:10.1111/ijcs.12092. Retrived From: http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=bth&AN=95616585&site=ehost-live
Paul, R., & Elder, L. (2011). Critical Thinking: Ethical Reasoning and Fair-minded Thinking, Part I. Journal Of Developmental Education, 33(1), 36-37. Retrived From: http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=45456473&site=ehost-live
Winebrenner, T. (2012). The Miniature Guide to Critical Thinking: Concepts and Tools / The Miniature Guide to the Art of Asking Essential Questions / The Miniature Guide to Understanding the Foundations of Ethical Reasoning (Book). Contemporary Argumentation & Debate, 24114-118. Retrived From: http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=bth&AN=13787968&site=ehost-live
Yazdani, N., & Murad, H. (2015). Toward an Ethical Theory of Organizing. Journal Of Business Ethics, 127(2), 399-417. doi:10.1007/s10551-014-2049-3. Retrived From: http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=bth&AN=101363947&site=ehost-live
Ethics and Moral Development Assignment Order Instructions: Please read below for information concerning assignment.
Ethics and Moral Development Assignment
Support responses with examples and use APA formatting in the paper. You may access the school’s website by logging into:
https://mycampus.southuniversity.edu/portal/server.pt
Please note that when you log into the website you must click launch class, and on the next screen click syllabus to view this week’s readings (week 1) and Academic Resources to access the school’s library.
To support work, use the course and text readings and also use outside sources. As in all assignments, cite your sources in your work and provide references for the citations in APA format.
Ethics and Moral Development
Reflect upon ethical dilemmas you may have encountered in an organization you are or have been with or that is currently in the news. Also, familiarize yourself with Kohlberg’s stages of moral development.
For your initial post, address the following:
• Describe the ethical dilemma.
• Which of Kohlberg’s stages of moral development is represented in your example? Be sure to justify your reasoning for your choice. Do you think that one of the other theories of moral development better describes your example? Why?
Postulate the (hypothetical or real) best- and worst-case outcomes of this dilemma as you see them.
Ethics and Moral Development Assignment Sample Answer
Ethics and Moral Development
Ethics refers to standards well-grounded on right and wrong. It relates to a set of behavior that humans ought to do regarding rights obligations, fairness and the general benefit to society. Ethical dilemmas refer to situations one is pinned down in making a choice between two options that don’t entirely resolve the situation in an ethical manner.
The best example of a moral dilemma can be clearly explained using El Chapo’s (Joaquin Guzman) story. El Chapo got arrested for violating drug trafficking laws in Mexico and escaping maximum security prisons twice (Killen & Smetana, 2014). Though government officials and the international community want him jailed, folks back at Mexico consider him a hero. He has transformed his community by paving roads, creating job opportunities and maintaining peace. This dilemma poses a serious question on whether to jail him for drug trafficking, or acquit him for his good deeds to the society (Shaw, 2014).
Kohlberg’s stage two; Instrument and relativity can be argued out in the defence of El Chapo to exonerate him. He can manipulate the public to rally support for him for his good deeds. Another stage of Kohlberg’s moral development that can be applied is law and order. El Chapo’s capture is rightful since he broke the law. Social Contract can also be implemented to give the government the power to keep him behind bars since the government is viewed as a legal authority and not a moral one (Killen & Smetana, 2014).
In consideration of the above analysis, the dilemma created can swing both ways depending on who has a more dominant power. Law and order eventually did carry the day since no one is above the law. El Chapo, in the end, got jailed. Solving ethical dilemmas don’t guarantee a winning result for the party involved.
Ethics and Moral Development Assignment References
Killen, M., & Smetana, J. G. (2014). Handbook of moral development. New York: Psychology Press.
Shaw, W. H. (2014). Business ethics. Boston, MA: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning.
Ethics Self Check and Response Proposal Order Instructions: Dear writer please read the file name:
PROPOSAL
then fill the:
Researcher’s ethics self-check
in the following file:
01 Ethics_Response_Form MASTER
Ethics Self Check and Response Proposal Sample Answer
ETHICS RESPONSEFORM
Researcher name (student):
Faculty reviewer:
Date of Review:
Working Title of Proposal or summary of study scope:
Proposal attached? ___ Yes ___No
Academic Honesty Declaration signed? ___Yes ___ No
Each of the ethical standards below must be adequately addressed by the researcher in order to obtain ethics approval.
Ethics Self Check and Response Proposal
In the blue column, the RESEARCHER (student) should perform a self-check using these 35 questions before submitting the ethics form to the faculty member supervising the study. In each row of the blue column, the RESEARCHER should enter YES, NO, or NA as well as a very brief explanation. The Academic Honesty Declaration must be attached and should be signed and dated.
In the yellow column, the ETHICS REVIEWER (supervising faculty member) will enter YES, NO, or NA to confirm or challenge the RESEARCHER’S self-check on each standard. With each NO, the ETHICS REVIEWER will indicate what revisions are required for ethics approval. The faculty reviewer will also render a decision at the end of this form and return the form to the RESEARCHER.
If the ETHICS REVIEWER (supervising faculty member) is able to approve “as is” then the orange column is left blank.
In the orange column, the RESEARCHER (student) will respond to each of the ETHICS REVIEWER’S concerns to explain where/how each of the reviewer’s concerns was met in the resubmitted materials.
Researcher’s ethics self-check
In each row, the researcher should confirm compliance with the ethical standard by entering “Yes,”“No,” or “N/A,”along with a brief defense of the response (i.e., stating keywords that point to how the ethical standard has been met).
Ethics Reviewer’s assessment:
After the researcher has presented the evidence for compliance with each ethical standard, the Ethics Reviewer should either confirm by entering “Yes” or challenge with “No.” With each “No,” the reviewer must specify what revisions are needed to obtain ethics approval.
Researcher’s response to Ethics Reviewer
Researcher must use this column to explain how and where each of the Ethics Reviewer’s concerns (in the yellow column) has been addressed.
Example: Will data be stored securely?
Yes. Data files will be kept on a password protected computer.
No. Please also address how the paper surveys will be secured prior to being entered as electronic files.
Paper surveys will be in a locked file cabinet. Proposal has been updated.
The first 11 questions apply to all studies (even when the researcher is not interacting with participants to collect new data).
Hover the mouse over the blue footnoted words to view extra tips and definitions.
1. Are participant recruitment and data collection steps[i]adequately described, such that the study’s risks and burdens can be discerned?
Yes. How data would be collected through the use of questionnaires is clearly described. Two-hundred participants will complete the closed-ended questionnaires.
2. Will the research procedures ensure privacy[ii] during data collection?
Yes. The names and details of the participants will be kept confidential to ensure the anonymity of the study subjects.
3. Will data be stored securely[iii] with adequate provisions to maintain the confidentiality of the data?
No. Not specified
4. Will the data be stored for at least 5 years?
No. Not specified.
5. If participants’ names or contact info will be recorded in the research records, are they absolutely necessary[iv]?
NA. Participants names or contact information would not be recorded
6. Do the research procedures and analysis/write-up plans include all possible measures to ensure that participant identities are not directly or indirectly[v] disclosed? For secondary data analyses, the proposal must clearly state when/how de-identification will occur.
Yes. Through the use of questionnaires, the respondents’ anonymity would be observed and their identities would not be disclosed.
7. Have all potential psychological[vi],relationship[vii], legal[viii], economic/professional[ix], physical[x], and other risks been fully acknowledged[xi] and described?
No. Not specified.
8. Have the above risks been minimized [xii]as much as possible?
No. Not specified.
9. Has the researcher proactively managed any potential conflicts of interest[xiii]? Note that student researchers may not utilize research assistants to recruit participants or collect research data on behalf of the researcher.
No. Not specified.
10. Are the research risks and burdens[xiv] reasonable, in consideration of the new knowledge[xv] that this research design can offer?
No. Not specified.
11. Is the research site willing to provide an Authorisation Letter (or email) granting permission[xvi]for all relevant data[xvii] access, access to participants, facility use, and/or use of personnel time for research purposes?
Yes. The research site, various oil and gas (O+G) companies, are ready to provide Authorization Letters.
The remaining questions only apply to studies that involve recruiting participants to collect new data (such as surveys, interviews, observations).
____Please place an X on this line if NONE of the questions in the next section are applicable to the proposed study.
12. Applicable for student researchers: Will this researcher be appropriately qualified[xviii] and supervised[xix] in all data collection procedures?
Yes. The researcher is well-trained to collect data using questionnaire surveys. The researcher would be supervised remotely by the supervisor.
13. Is participant recruitment coordinated in a manner that is non-coercive[xx]? Coercive elements include: leveraging an existing relationship to “encourage” participation, recruiting in a group[xxi] setting, extravagant compensation, recruiting individuals in a context of their treatment or evaluation[xxii], etc. A researcher must disclose here whether/how the researcher may already be known to the participants and explain how perceptions of coerced research participation will be minimized[xxiii].
Yes. Anonymous surveys are used to collect data from participants. For online surveys, participants would be invited through email invitations. No one is forced to participate. The researcher is not already known to the participants. Perceptions of coerced research participation would be minimized by informing the participants that they have the right to withdraw from the study at any time without being punished.
14. If anyone would be excluded from participating, is their exclusion justified? Is their exclusion handled respectfully and without stigma[xxiv]?
NO. Exclusion criteria not specified.
15. Where the researcher proposes to use an interpreter, has adequate consideration been given to the interpreter’s training regarding confidentiality and principles of informed consent, etc.?
NA. No interpreter would be used.
16. Do the informed consent[xxv] procedures provide adequate time to review the study information and ask questions before giving consent?
Yes. There is enough time to review the informed consent form and answer questions.
17. Will informed consent be appropriately[xxvi]documented?
Yes. It would be documented. No signatures would be required to protect the participants’ privacy.
18. Is the participant information sheet (PIS) written using language that will be understandable[xxvii] to the potential participants?
Yes. A professional tone is maintained and the language in the PIS is tailored to the readers
19. Does the PIS include an understandable[xxviii] explanation of the research purpose?
Yes. The research purpose is clearly stated using appropriate everyday language.
20. Does the PIS explain the sample’s inclusion criteria in such a way[xxix]that the participants can understand how/why THEY are being asked to participate?
No. inclusion criteria is not included in the PIS.
21. Does the PIS clearly state that participation is voluntary?
Yes. This information is included.
22. Does the PIS convey that the participant has the right[xxx]to decline or discontinue participation at any time?
Yes. It states that the participants have the right to withdraw from the study.
23. Does the PIS include an understandable description of the data collection procedures?
Yes. Procedures for data collection are described clearly.
24. Does the PIS include an estimate of the time commitment[xxxi] for participation?
Yes. It states that the questionnaire would be completed within 20 minutes.
25. Does the PIS describe any thank you gifts, compensation, or reimbursement to participants (for travel costs, etc.) or lack thereof?
Yes. It states that the participants should not expect to be given any compensation, reimbursements or gifts as a result of their participation.
26. Does the PIS include a description of reasonably foreseeable risks[xxxii]or discomforts?
No. This information is not included.
27. Does the PIS include a description of anticipated benefits to participants[xxxiii]and/or others?
No. This information is not included
28. Does the PIS explain how the participant can contact the researcher and the university’s Research Participant Advocate? (USA number 001-612-312-1210 or email address liverpoolethics@ohecampus.com)
Yes. The contact details of the researcher are provided.
29. Does the PIS describe how privacy will be maintained[xxxiv]?
Yes. It states that the participants’ details would not be disclosed to third parties.
30. Does the PIS disclose all potential conflicts of interest (specifying that this study is separate from the researcher’s other professional role)?
No. This information is not included
31. Do the consent documents preserve the participant’s legal[xxxv]rights?
Yes. The participants are not asked to waive any legal rights.
The remaining questions regarding sensitive content and vulnerable populations should be reviewed and addressed by the researcher (student) and faculty reviewer, but must also be confirmed by the International Online Research Ethics Committee before the study may go ahead.
____Please place an X on this line if NONE of the questions in the next section are applicable to the proposed study.
32. If vulnerable[xxxvi] individuals will be specifically sought out as participants, is such targeted recruitment justified[xxxvii]by a research design that will specifically benefit that vulnerable group at large?
NA. Does not apply to the research study.
33. If the researcher happens to also serve in a trusted or authoritative[xxxviii]role to the participant (e.g., health care provider, teacher etc.), do the recruitment procedures ensure voluntary participation?
NA. Does not apply to the research study.
34. If the research procedures might reveal or create an acute psychological state that necessitates referral, are there suitable procedures in place to manage this?
NA. Does not apply to the research study.
35. If the research procedures might reveal criminal activity, child/elder abuse, or employer policy non-compliance that necessitates[xxxix] reporting, are there suitable procedures in place for managing this? Are limits to confidentiality (i.e., duty to report) appropriately mentioned in the Participant Information Sheet?
NA. Does not apply to the research study.
ETHICS APPROVAL DECISION
THIS DOCUMENT MUST BE POSTED IN THE GRADEBOOK AFTER THE SUPERVISING FACULTY MEMBER HAS RENDERED A DECISION. THE APPROPRIATE ETHICS PATHWAY(S) MUST ALSO BE ENTERED INTO THE MiTSA, eg LOCAL, EXPEDITED OR IOREC APPROVAL(S)
The supervising Faculty Member will mark an X next to box A, B, or C. If box A or B is marked, then the supervising faculty member will also mark an X next to the applicable subcategory (1, 2, 3, etc.):
A. APPROVED VIA EXPEDITED (LIGHT TOUCH) ETHICS REVIEW:
· As the supervising faculty member, I confirm that all applicable criteria 1-35 above are met with either a “Yes” or “N/A.”
· I understand my responsibilities as a supervisor and will ensure to the best of my abilities that the student investigator abides by the University’s policy on Research Ethics at all times.
· I affirm that the research activities fall entirely within the parameters of the design indicated with an X below (1,2 or 3) that the International Online Research Ethics Committee has authorized faculty members to approve via the expedited (light touch) review:
1. analysis of public documents, artifacts, behavior or data;
2. secondary analysis of existing data that is privately held but released for research purposes (with all identifiers removed);
3. surveys or interviews of non-vulnerable adults on non-sensitive topics (i.e., no potential to participants of coercion, distress, loss of work/school time, damage to professional reputation). Vulnerable populations include children, clinic patients, prisoners, military personnel, facility residents, anyone over whom the researcher holds authority (e.g., students, subordinates), anyone who might feel undue pressure to participate in the study, and any individuals with severe enough mental disabilities to interfere with capacity to consent to the study.
B. REFERRED TO ETHICS COMMITTEE:
· As the supervising faculty member, I am referring to this study to the full ethics committee (IOREC) because [mark 1, 2, 3, 4 or Other below].
· I will email the student’s ethics application and all attachments as a single zip file to the ethics committee vialiverpoolethics@ohecampus.com, copying the DOS (or Programme Director where this exists). The ethics committee accepts applications until 5 pm Liverpool time zone on the 3rd Thursday of every month.
Decisions and feedback will be emailed to the student and DA within 5 business days after the 4th Thursday of the month.
1. the researcher proposes to collect data from vulnerable individuals such as children, clinic patients, prisoners, military personnel, facility residents, anyone over whom the researcher holds authority (e.g., students, subordinates), anyone who might feel undue pressure to participate in the study, and any individuals with severe enough mental disabilities to interfere with capacity to consent to the study.
2. some (potential) participants may find the research topic or premise sensitive
3. participants’ jobs or livelihoods may be placed at any risk by the study activities
4. the participants’ culture and/or international location suggest that extra participant protections may be necessary
Other: _____
c. C. REVISIONS REQUIRED:
The student needs to revise the proposal and ethics materials to address the concerns in the yellow column and resubmit to me before I can select A or B above.
Footnotes
[i] In order to weigh potential risks against benefits, the researcher first needs to plan and clearly articulate all of the following that applies:
how existing data or contact information of potential participants will be obtained,
format and context of the initial contact with potential participants,
informed consent procedures,
assignment to groups (if applicable),
description of any pilot activities,
data collection steps,
transcript review and/or member check (if applicable), and
how results will be shared with stakeholders.
[ii] Privacy risks might include unintended breach of confidential information (such as educational or medical records); being observed/overheard by others while meeting researcher or providing data; or intrusion on the privacy of others who are not involved in the study (e.g. participant’s family).
[iii] Secure data storage requires password protection on electronic files and locks for physical data.
[iv] Note that consent forms do not require signatures if the participant can indicate consent by some action such as clicking on a link, returning a completed survey, etc.
[v] Participant identities might be “indirectly” and unintentionally disclosed if a researcher’s final research report fails to withhold demographic details or site descriptions that might permit a reader to deduce the identity of a participant. So the researcher needs to think about which demographic descriptors are most important to collect and report while ensuring that the identity of individual participants is protected. Also, the name of the site/organization is typically masked in scholarly research though in some cases, the organization can elect to publicize their name along with the research results.
[vi] Psychological risks include stress greater than what one would experience in daily life (e.g., materials or topics that could be considered sensitive, offensive, threatening, degrading).
[vii] Relationship risks are present if the recruitment or data collection process is likely to alter the existing dynamics between the researcher and participant (who may be coworkers or have some professional relationship), among participants (if they know one another), or between the participant and the participant’s friends, coworkers, or family members.
[viii] Legal risks are present if data collection might result in a participant’s disclosure of a violation of laws.
[ix] Economic/professional risks are present if data collection could result in the participant disclosing a violation of workplace policies, disagreement with leadership decisions, poor work performance, or anything else that could be damaging to the participant’s position, professional reputation, promotability, or employability. Risks are acceptable but participants need to be made aware of professional risks during the consent process so they can make an informed decision.
[x] Physical risks are not common in social science research but would involve risk of serious physical injury to the participant or the researcher.
[xi]Minimal risks are acceptable but must be identified upfront. Minimal risk is defined as when: “the probability and magnitude of harm or discomfort anticipated in the research are not greater in and of themselves than those ordinarily encountered in daily life.”
[xii] The researcher is responsible for planning measures that will provide participants with reasonable protection from privacy loss, distress, psychological harm, economic loss, damage to professional reputation, and other possible harms.
[xiii] A conflict of interest is caused when the researcher has some sort of dual role in the research context, such as being a teacher, therapist, investor, business owner, manager, etc. Conflict of interest must be managed to ensure that the research reveals “truth,” not just the outcome that the researcher might desire to see due to their other role.
[xiv] All research activities place some degree of burden on the participants by asking the participants to share personal information, volunteer time, and assume risks.
[xv] Examples of “new knowledge” include: effectively addressing a gap in the literature, generating new theory, enhancing understanding of a phenomenon, assessing the effectiveness of a particular professional practice, addressing a local practical problem via data analysis.
[xvi] No documentation of permission is required (a) if the researcher will simply be asking organizations to distribute research invitations on the researcher’s behalf, or (b) if the researcher is using only public means to identify/contact participants.
[xvii] Note that when medical, educational, or business records would be analyzed or used to identify potential research participants, the site needs to explicitly approve access to data for research purposes (even if the researcher normally has access to that data to perform his or her job).
[xviii]Researchers must be able to document their training in the data collection techniques and the ethics committee might require the researcher to obtain additional training prior to ethics approval. For most student researchers, the research course sequence is sufficient but some research procedures (such as interviewing people with mental disabilities) may require additional training. For psychological assessments, the manual indicates specific qualifications required. Data collection from children requires a background check/clearance through a local agency.
[xix] Remote supervision is suitable for most studies but onsite supervision may be required for certain types of sensitive data collection (e.g., interviews or assessment regarding emotional topics).
[xx] For example, anonymous surveys and/or low-pressure communications such as email invitations permit potential participants to opt out with minimal fear of retaliation or other negative consequences.
[xxi] It is not ethically acceptable to invite a “captive audience” to participate in research on the spot (i.e., to ask an entire class or a group of meeting attendees to complete a survey during their session). Such a dynamic would not provide sufficient privacy or respect for their right to decline research participation. However, a researcher may use the last few minutes of a meeting to introduce a study and distribute materials, such that the potential participants can then take their time to decide later about participation.
[xxii] Generally, data collection cannot be approved during work hours or school hours unless a “free period” has been identified (e.g., lunch) so the research activities can be separated from the participants’ regular activities. It is important to maintain an “opt-in” dynamic rather than implying that employees/students/group members are expected to participate.
[xxiii]Completion of the study directly benefits the student (allowing him or her to obtain a degree), and so the researcher should minimize the potential for either (a) conflict of interest or (b) perceived coercion to participate. Researchers who are in positions of authority or familiarity must take extra precautions to ensure that potential participants are not pressured to take part in their study. Examples: an instructor researcher may recruit her students AFTER grades have been assigned; a psychologist researcher may recruit clients from ANOTHER psychologist’s practice; a manager researcher may conduct ANONYMOUS data collection so that subordinates do not perceive their responses or [non]participation as being associated with their job standing.
[xxiv] When applicable, the exclusion criteria should be listed on the recruitment material (flyer, invitation email,etc.) or participant information sheet (PIS) to prevent situations in which the researcher rejects volunteers in a stigmatizing manner.
[xxv]Informed consent is not just a form; it is a process of explaining the study to the participant and encouraging questions before the participant makes a decision about participation.
[xxvi] While documenting consent via signature is common, note that anonymous surveys can obtain “implied consent” by informing the participant, “To protect your privacy, no consent signature is requested. Instead, you may indicate your consent by clicking here/returning this survey in the enclosed envelope.”) It is also acceptable to audio record verbal consent for interviews, in order to not have any record of the interviewee’s name.
[xxvii]The ethics committee encourages tailoring the language to the readers as long as a professional tone is maintained.
[xxviii] Minimal jargon should be used during the informed consent process. Everyday layperson language is most appropriate to help a participant make an informed decision about participation.
[xxix] People receiving the PIS should not be left wondering, “How did the researcher get my name?” or “Why am I being invited and not others?” or “Does the researcher already know private information about me?” The means by which the researcher has identified and contacted the potential participant needs to be made clear if it is not already clear from the context. Sample explanations of inclusion criteria in PIS: (a) The human resources department has forwarded this invitation to all employees who meet the researcher’s study criteria (i.e., have been with the organization at least 2 years and have transitioned into a managerial role within the past year); or (b) The researcher is inviting all attendees of the past year’s XYZ professional conference to be in the study; or (c) The researcher will be randomly selecting possible participants by approaching the residents of every 5th home in this neighborhood until 100 responses are obtained.
[xxx] When the researcher is already known to the participant, the PIS must include written assurance that declining or discontinuing will not negatively impact the participant’s relationship with the researcher or (if applicable) the invitee’s access to services.
[xxxi] Provide an estimate (in minutes or hours) of each component of data collection (e.g., survey, interview, member checking. etc. )
[xxxii] Describe only the possible harms that go beyond the risks of daily life.
[xxxiii] For most social science studies, it is appropriate to state that there are no particular direct benefits to the individual. In this case, just present the benefits to society.
[xxxiv]The PIS should explain that the research report will not include names and that the data will not be used for any purposes other than research. It is not always clear to participants how a research interview is different from a journalistic interview, in which informants might be named.So the PIS should also describe any coding system that will permit the researcher to not use names. For sensitive interviews, the researcher might also want to assure participants that recordings will be destroyed immediately after transcription.
[xxxv]The consent forms/process should not ask a participant to waive any legal rights.
[xxxvi] Vulnerable participants include children, clinic patients, prisoners, military personnel, facility residents, anyone over whom the researcher holds authority (e.g., students, subordinates), anyone who might feel undue pressure to participate in the study, and any individuals with severe enough mental disabilities to interfere with capacity to consent to the study. Pregnant women (and their unborn children) are only considered a vulnerable population when a study involves physically risky data collection.
[xxxvii]Targeted recruitment of vulnerable participants can only be approved when the ethics committee determines that the study’s benefits justify its risks/costs.
[xxxviii] A researcher with a dual role must use anonymous surveys or some other method that permits potential participants to opt out without fear of negative consequences. Patients, students, and subordinates of the researcher need explicit assurance that their decision about participation will in no way impact their ongoing relationship with the researcher.
[xxxix] Any limits to confidentiality (i.e., duty to report) must be mentioned in the participant information sheet (PIS).
